load Locating 

* 

and 

Simplified 

C. E. BRANDT 


( 




For Use in the Common Schools 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



















ROAD LOCATING AND 
BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


FOR USE IN THE COMMON SCHOOLS 


BY 


C. E. BRANDT 


ILLUSTRATED 



C. E. BRANDT 

CUMBERLAND, Md. 


i 


LiBHARY of 00NQRE33 
two Copies Receive* 

JUL 20 1500 

£<iU$ 

tTitZy 

ULABS/ AXc, wu. 
copy a. 



Copyright 1908 by C. E. Brandt 

This book was prepared, more for the general good 
of humanity, than the hope of financial reward. 
Therefore the public is welcome to all the informa¬ 
tion herein contained by making due reference; but 
the work is copyrighted and persons using the ideas 
without giving due credit will be prosecuted. 












CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface.5 

Biography.7 

Road Locating and Building. 

Simplified.9 

Topography.13 

Location.20 

Disadvantages of Bad Grades.22 

Origin of Bad Grades.23 

The Condition Faced.24 

Convict Labor on Roads.26 

War Enemy to Roads.27 

Road Knowledge.27 

To Find Percentage of Grade with a Level .... 37 

Grade by Increased Angles.38 

Sag Line.39 

Maximum Grade.40 

Sag Line and Angles of Rise Combined.42 

A Grade Against a Mountain.44 

How to Read a Compass.45 

How to Lay off a Curve.49 

A Curve without a Compass.51 

Segment.51 

Cost of Location.55 

Right of Way.56 

Discretionary Power of Officers.58 

Drainage.59 

Bridges.62 

Tables.52 




























CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Rolling Friction.63 

Sliding Friction.64 

Gravity.65 

Inertia.66 

A Side Cut Road.66 

Macadam Road.69 

Cost of Macadam Road.70 

Telford Road.71 

Steel Rails on a Common Road.72 

What Roads Build First.73 

Water.75 

Automatic Flood Gate.77 

Road Material.79 

Shade Trees.80 

Maintenance.81 

Bonds.82 

Enthusiasm.83 

Recapitulation.84 

The Horse.86 

Appendix.89 

Arguments for the Bill.97 























LIST OF FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Portrait of Author.7 

The Hand That Rocks the Cradle Rules the World . . 9 

General Landscape View of the Keremeos-Pontiac Mines 13 
Eureka Branch Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, Show¬ 


ing Double Circle.17 

A Fine Finish in a Poor Location.24 

Surveying Instruments.28 







PREFACE 


The manifest incompetence of road men to per¬ 
form the duties incumbent upon them, suggested 
the preparation of the road law in the appendix to 
this book. 

This called for the argument to sustain the bill; 
and increase the probability of its passage. 

The thought then occurred that the masses,— 
though otherwise intelligent people, would fail to 
stand a rigid examination on a subject, the theory 
of which had never been simplified to conform to 
the elementary branches to which their education 
had been confined; and that the proposed law would 
not admit novices to hold office, while they qualified 
themselves by experience. 

This practical view of the situation would bar all 
inexperienced persons from positions; and furnish 
no incentive for an increase of wisdom; but rather 
tend to make the incumbents more egotistic; and 
give legal credence to their ignorance. 

This originated the idea to prepare a booklet on 
the subject; the duty revived thoughts; awakened 
latent experience ; expanded useful ideas into chap¬ 
ters; requiring plates to be made or selected, to il¬ 
lustrate theories, until existing proportions were 
reached to simplify important factors in the good 
road problem. 

“ What is worth doing, is worth doing well,” 
has been the incentive, during the compilation of 

5 


6 


PREFACE 


this treatise; and observations of the author during 
fifty years, have been brought into requisition; and 
no statement made on questionable evidence, or 
thought formulated into words except from experi¬ 
ence; and hereby submitted to the public, with that 
confidence accompanying veracity. 

All offensive allusions on debatable questions, 
when possible have been evaded; but no important 
truth omitted when necessary for the benefit of the 
student. 

When presenting two views, both sides have re¬ 
ceived impartial consideration, while axioms have 
been stated without argument. 

Accuracy of theory, and simplicity of expression 
have been the aim; paying due respect to the refine¬ 
ment, and spirit of the times; in a style of expres¬ 
sion the most interesting, with the least possible re¬ 
sort to fragmentary statements. If success has not 
rewarded the effort, the failure is due to the execu¬ 
tion, and not the plan or purpose. 

I submit the work, thus undertaken, and com¬ 
pleted, to You,— for whom it was intended; and 
ask a considerate judgment and just recognition of 
whatever worth it may possess. 


C. E. B. 





C. E. Brandt, 







C. E. Brandt was born in Allegany County, Md., 
April 2ist, 184 7; was taken in childhood to what 
is now West Virginia. Living in West Virginia 
during the war between the States delayed his edu¬ 
cation; but after the war he received a Normal 
Diploma at Fairmont, W . Va., or Certificate to 
teach school in that State during life without fur¬ 
ther examination, Jidy 3d, 1873, an d took 

a course in Greek, Latin, and Theology. 

He had experience in locating uniform grade 
county road at the age of 13, under directions of 
his father, who was a good road enthusiast; and im¬ 
parted to his son inherent, practical, and drastic 
ideas on the subject. 

After the author graduated at Fairmont, W. Va., 
he went to Elk Garden in Mineral Co., W. Va., to 
teach school; and three of his sisters' children were 
pupils and naturally called him Uncle Charley. No 
objection could be filed to the other pupils doing the 
same; by degrees the parents and neighbors adopted 
the name which accounts for it being so prevalent. 


7 


The numerous works, published on engineering, 
have reflected very great credit on the authors, for 
learning, and therefore benefited those in a position 
to solve their depth of meaning; but the practical 
points of road engineering, and road building have 
never been simplified to meet the requirements of 
pupils in our common schools; and the numerous 
other classes, directly or indirectly interested in the 
subject. 

Therefore effort has been made to communicate, 
at a nominal cost, numerous practical ideas simpli¬ 
fied, to meet the requirements of the masses. 


8 






The Hand That Rocks the Cradle Rules the World. 





ROAD LOCATING AND BUILDING 

SIMPLIFIED 


The Good Road Subject in Schools. 

What is the strongest guarantee of free govern¬ 
ment? 

The diffusion of useful knowledge amongst the 
masses. 

Why teach the principles and importance of good 
roads to the youth? 

The impressions made by parents and teachers 
on youthful minds is the most permanent and last¬ 
ing. 

Why should all our people he informed on the 
subject of good roads? 

Easy transportation is a factor of social inter¬ 
course, wealth, pleasure, national strength; and 
civilization; and very largely affects our existence. 

How do you explain this broad assertion? 

The human family is the most dependent of all 
existing creatures. By language we convey 
thoughts and knowledge; this was facilitated by let¬ 
ters and characters; and eventually wafted by elec¬ 
tricity. Commerce and surplus products were orig¬ 
inally transported by water; then domestic animals 

9 


IO 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


were utilized; and eventually steam and electricity 
employed. 

What would he the result if transportation would 
cease? 

If no thought, sympathy, or other value could be 
transferred; inconvenience would immediately re¬ 
sult, closely attended with suffering, which would 
increase, and rapidly terminate the lives of a ma¬ 
jority, if not all of the human family. 

What are some of the results of easy transporta¬ 
tionf 

In every direction, there is evidence that in pro¬ 
portion as people have easy transportation, their 
pleasure, ease of existence, wealth, and affluence are 
augmented. 

What is the principal reason for this? 

The exchange of surplus products; vision trans¬ 
ports the smile; language, and magnetism the sym¬ 
pathies and emotions; while steam, domestic ani¬ 
mals and electricity move the commerce, which 
causes transportation, in the various forms to be 
a most important factor in our happiness and ex¬ 
istence ; and this thought should be firmly impressed 
on the youthful mind. 

What makes the propriety of teaching this branch 
in the common schools unquestionable? 

Our schools are designed to prepare our youth 
for the duties and happiness in after life; and any 
subject which will make citizens more useful,— 
add to the general prosperity and happiness of man¬ 
kind; and by no means injure any, is an incumbent 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


ii 


duty on the competent teacher whose province is to 
mold our future destiny. 

If our road foremen were required to stand a 
rigid examination, would they not demand increased 
wages? 

Proficiency will command more wages and is 
a remunerative investment for the employer. 

Has there ever been much road fund wasted? 

Ignorance, and awkwardness have caused the 
practical waste of fully half the road funds appro¬ 
priated in the United States. 

How prevent further mistakes? 

Make the masses intelligent on the road subject. 
They will demand that road people become profi¬ 
cient; and accomplish double the permanent results 
with the same amount of funds; without increasing 
the taxes. 

What advantages can be derived by teaching this 
theory to the entire youth when only a small por¬ 
tion will be actually employed? 

All should, and do indirectly pay taxes; and 
should be intelligent as to how their means is ap¬ 
plied; and all are interested in easy transportation; 
and should wield an influence against graft and 
ignorance in the application of public funds; and 
by teaching the elementary principles to all, will 
readily determine who has the most taste and best 
talent for actual road work; who, if necessary, can 
study more advanced books than this; and by ap¬ 
plication, theory and experience abundantly supply 
the demands of the country with the most proficient 


12 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


road engineers, and road builders of any nation on 
earth. 

But why should the girls study this subject the 
same as the boys? 

Because they are as much interested in pleasant 
drives, automobile rides, trolley car excursions, rural 
delivery of mail, the light reflected by the printing 
press, an easy means of getting to and from 
Churches and Schools; and the good results of easy 
transportation generally as the boys are in evading 
mud, and making a number of loads over a hill in¬ 
stead of one around it. 

Then you would not confine this subject to sex? 

No, nor any other on which knowledge, refine¬ 
ment; and the cause of civilization depends. 

Could the women of any generation cause all 
the roads in the United States to be made what is 
known as a railroad grade and practically of uni¬ 
form solidity and smoothness, without violating any 
rule of refinement? 

They could by uniting, accomplish any cause 
based on right, by prudently teaching the youth at 
home. 

Should the children in tozvns and cities be in¬ 
formed on this subject? 

Towns and cities are the legitimate offspring of 
easy, transportation; their existence would cease 
without the sustenance of communication with other 
parts of the world; their accumulation of wealth re¬ 
quires that they pay a large amount of taxes, en¬ 
titling them to a voice in the application of public 






General Landscape View of the Keremeos-Pontiac Mines. 



BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


13 


funds, requiring knowledge to wield an intelligent 
influence, and demand that those who formulate 
the designs and execute the work shall demonstrate 
their proficiency. 

Does this imperfection of design affect the con¬ 
struction of towns, streets and alleyst 

It does very much. A map of the ground for a 
town should be first made; and then laid off by a re¬ 
survey. This neglect may be observed in nearly 
every old town in the original States. 

Give some of the most prevalent reasons for 
the irregular form of some of our old towns, and 
cities. 

Many of our old towns have grown from mere 
villages, while the people constantly believed that 
the completion of each building was the last to be 
erected; and offsets were made in streets, rather 
than destroy a cabbage plant; combined with the 
impossibility of any two selfish persons thinking 
alike; and no one disposed to reason on the future; 
are amongst the prolific causes for such numerous 
inexcusable cases of awkwardness. 

Topography. 

What is the first duty a road man should per¬ 
formf 

An investigation of the topography of the country 
should first be made, keeping constantly in view the 
elevations, depressions, the probable increase of 
commerce, the distance from the start to the ter¬ 
minus, the amount of elevation to be made from 
point to finish and whether all the distance can be 


14 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


used in making the elevation; and then run a suffi¬ 
cient number of preliminary lines to be assured of 
all the difficulties to be overcome, and choose the 
best before he considers running a permanent route. 

Can a man of medium ability succeed in making 
a good location by using this precaution f 

A man of moderate mental ability and limited 
experience, if supplied with industry and staying 
qualities to not slight the job can accomplish good 
results by this process. 

On the other hand a man superior mentally and 
with more experience who would follow Indian 
trails, pig paths, dividing lines of farms; and allow 
his judgment to be warped by the opinions of oth¬ 
ers; the condition of the weather, or desire to fin¬ 
ish would most certainly make a botch. It fre¬ 
quently is best in mountainous countries to ascend 
streams, as illustrated in the following picture. 

Commerce usually concentrates at the confluence 
of large streams, creating a demand for convenient 
highways, to ascend the various cavities, apparently 
provided by nature for that purpose, rendering the 
use of expensive roads from one mountain to the 
other of far less importance. 

What advantages are obtained by building roads 
up streams? 

By building a road upon one side or the other of 
a stream the grade is usually the very best attain¬ 
able in a mountainous region; and as the grade in¬ 
creases with the rise of the stream, the amount of 
produce to pass over the road diminishes as the 
distance from the market increases, the products 
of the ground usually weigh more than the pur- 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


15 

chases of the people, resulting in a down grade 
haul of most of the weight; and a gradual eleva¬ 
tion of the weight which is necessary to haul up; 
the probability of nearly all the road being on solid 
ground, and ample opportunity for perfect drain¬ 
age; with no probability that the location will ever 
have to be changed. 

What distance should those roads he placed above 
the streams? 

This depends on the size of the stream and pos¬ 
sibly on local circumstances which may present 
themselves; but usually double the depth of the 
highest known flood is about right for the bed of 
the road; that is, if the highest known flood, meas¬ 
ures six feet from the bed of the stream to the top 
of the water, if the road bed is placed twelve feet 
perpendicular above the bed of the stream it will 
most likely be safe. 

What objections are there against placing the 
road higher than double the depth of usual Hoods? 

The inconvenience of people on the opposite side 
getting to the road; and the crossing hollows caused 
by the tributaries coming into the main stream. 

But after the last tributary to the main stream 
has been passed, do you always continue a uniform 
distance above the bed of the stream you are ascend¬ 
ing? 

An examination of the topography of the coun¬ 
try, together with experimental lines, may show 
that toward the source of the stream which is being 
ascended the fall is very great; and that to over¬ 
come the difficulty to the best advantage the line 


i6 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


would better be a uniform rise from the last tribu¬ 
tary to the source of the stream. 

When ledges of rocks are found in the way, could 
the road he varied with propriety, nearer to the 
water without material injury to the grade or much 
liability of higher water? 

To vary and injure a grade on account of an ob¬ 
struction has never been good policy; and the prob¬ 
able increase of population and commerce now de¬ 
mands still greater accuracy. 

Could not a retaining wall he built to protect the 
road from high waterf 

There may be, and possibly are, instances where 
retaining walls are important, but on the character 
of ground represented in the aforegoing picture 
where ample elevation can be obtained for a road 
up out of the water the idea of a retaining wall 
would clearly prove an utter lack of common sense. 

Then you would continue the same elevation 
above the water regardless of obstructions? 

To disregard circumstances, is to abandon com¬ 
mon sense, which should be blended with theory and 
practice to attain wisdom. 

Unless there was a good and sufficient reason you 
would continue the same elevation f 

A good and sufficient reason for spoiling a lo¬ 
cation, to a qualified engineer, not too lazy to in¬ 
vestigate, amply paid for his work and in posses¬ 
sion of common sense would be something past ordi¬ 
nary. 

The same proportionate elevation, is meant; as 






Eureka Branch Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, Showing Double Circle. 





BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


1 7 

the stream is ascended the roadbed is intended to 
come nearer the water. 

For example, where the highest known flood was 
six feet deep, put the roadbed twelve feet above the 
bottom of the stream, which proportion will require 
when up to where the highest water is two feet deep 
to place the roadbed four feet above the bed of 
the stream. 

What object is there in thus nearing the streamf 

Very frequently there are divides at the sources 
of streams; and a few rods further the water runs 
in the opposite direction; and the lower the road 
passes through a divide the milder the grade can 
be made. 

This picture sustains the argument you make; 
but is this always the case? 

This plate is selected because of its perfect pres¬ 
entation of topography to the student; and inves¬ 
tigation will prove that while all mountainous sec¬ 
tions cannot be seen at one view, the same general 
principle will generally hold good; and demonstrate 
the utter impossibility of transferring commerce to 
an advantage without consulting Nature’s laws. 

To further illustrate topography take the double 
circle on the Eureka Branch of the Denver and Rio 
Grande Railroad in Utah. 

What was the object of this \double circle? 

The object in running up the hollow, then curv¬ 
ing around and running the same road over itself 
was evidently to diminish the grade by increasing 
the distance. 


18 ROAD LOCATING AND 

Then you accept this plan of modern engineer¬ 
ing? 

This case being founded on wisdom must be ac¬ 
cepted; but if an incompetent person would under¬ 
take to copy from this success at a place where simi¬ 
lar principles were not applicable, he would just as 
certainly make a failure as the above illustration 
demonstrates success. 

Then according to your idea a monkey who 
would copy after others would not make a compe¬ 
tent road engineert 

Experience and observation have fully demon¬ 
strated that a road engineer should have original 
common sense, independence of thought and natural 
capacity as a foundation for book knowledge or he 
will be a failure. 

Suppose in making this circle they doubled the 
distance and thereby diminished the grade one- 
half; would it not have been as well to have built 
only half as much track and made twice as many 
tripsf 

Multiplying the number of trips over the short 
route would have made the proportionate wear as 
great as a less number of trips would have made 
over a longer road; the danger on the steep grade 
would have been greater; and occasionally articles 
to be transferred can’t well be divided; these facts 
hold good, if this circle constitutes the entire road; 
but suppose the circle only formed five per cent, of 
the entire distance, the other 95 per cent, being easy 
grade, the formation of the curve and lessening of 
the grade would enable a given power to transport 
double the weight each trip up grade by running 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


i9 


five per cent, additional distance; and on a down 
hill trip diminish the danger vastly without any loss 
of power, as the cars would come down by gravity. 

Will this line of reasoning hold good as to county 
roads? 

Reason remains the same in absolutely similar 
cases; but on our public roads the weight trans¬ 
ferred is usually less at each time than on railroads, 
because of their imperfection; inanimate power is 
generally used, because it can be utilized for other 
purposes more readily than electricity and steam; 
and instinctive knowledge instead of reason, be¬ 
cause it is more bountiful, and less difficult to ob¬ 
tain. 

In case of this curve if a county road was made 
on the plan of the above represented railroad , and 
both equally good, a uniform grade from bottom 
to top of the hill, half the distance and double the 
grade;—if animals and people were given perfect 
freedom to use either which one would be traveled 
the most? 

In that case all animals would use the short, steep 
road; and the people would use it invariably com¬ 
ing down and usually going up, except in cases 
when transferring a heavy weight. 

Instances are numerous where short curves are 
made in roads; and when no hindrance is in the 
way, what is called a near cut is most frequently 
used. 

Then do you condemn simple and compound 
curves in county roads? 

Curves are sometimes unavoidable; but the idea 


20 


iROAD LOCATING AND 


is to make it still more impressive if possible to fully 
consider the topography of the country and ju¬ 
diciously use all the distance to an advantage in¬ 
stead of giving no attention to grade for probably 
three-fourths of the distance and then make all the 
elevation at once, or form a compound curve to 
prevent the grade from being too steep. 

Location. 

What is the first and most essential road prin¬ 
ciple f 

The design must be accurate, or the superstruc¬ 
ture will be imperfect. 

Does imperfection of road location exist to much 
extent? 

Fully half the distance of our roads in mountain¬ 
ous sections are imperfect in grade, which could 
have been avoided in many instances without in¬ 
crease of cost, and in other instances at a justifiable 
cost. 

Demonstrate the character of some of the most 
prevalent road mistakes. 



In many instances the surface measure and curve 
is the same up over a hill, that it is around it. 

By means of a curved stick with the bow up the 
distance and curve over a hill is shown, or by laying 







BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


21 


the stick flat the distance and curve around the hill 
is shown to be the same. 



The same is true going down across a hollow 
instead of curving around above it. Turn the bow 
down and the distance and curve is represented 
across the hollow, and turned flat, the distance and 
curve around the hollow is represented. 

The two aforegoing simple principles demon¬ 
strate how a road can be materially injured by try¬ 
ing to go straight instead of a uniform grade. 

Is the distance ever increased by this plan of ob¬ 
taining a uniform gradef 

The distance and first cost in some cases, are 
slightly increased; but the benefits obtained, as a 
rule, more than justify. 



How correct the grade of a road on uneven 
ground as indicated above? 

Estimate where the roadbed should be and show 
by pegs the amount to cut the banks and fill the 
hollows to make the grade uniform. 

What about distance and cost f 

This process will slightly diminish the surface 
measure; and by the modern means of dynamite to 






22 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


pulverize the banks and scrapers to transfer the 
material into the hollows by horse power, the ex¬ 
pense is very moderate. 

Disadvantages of Bad Grades. 

Can you state any disadvantage in bad gradesf 
From Gillespie we find that if a horse can pull 
on a level 1,000 pounds, on a rise of — 


I 

foot 

in 

IOO 

feet 

he 

draws 

900 

lbs. 

I 

tt 

tt 

5 ° 

u 

tt 

a 

810 

u 

I 

tt 

n 

44 

tt 

tt 

a 

750 

a 

I 

tt 

n 

40 

a 

a 

a 

720 

tt 

I 

tt 

n 

3 ° 

a 

n 

tt 

640 

a 

I 

tt 

tt 

^5 

a 

a 

tt 

540 

tt 

I 

tt 

tt 

24 

u 

a 

tt 

5 00 

tt 

I 

tt 

a 

20 

n 

tt 

a 

400 

a 

I 

tt 

a 

IO 

u 

tt 

tt 

250 

tt 


Is this loss of three-fourths of the power elevat¬ 
ing the zveight at every bank or hollow the only evil 
of bad grades? 

This loss of power unnecessarily elevating all the 
commerce of our country an indefinite number of 
times is enormous; and very conservatively esti¬ 
mated to equal the cost of running our govern¬ 
ment; and in addition thereto, there is a loss, hold¬ 
ing the weight back in the opposite side of the bank 
or hollow; more liability of breakage; increased 
danger to life and property; the certainty of heavy 
rains washing and materially injuring the road; 
the necessity of loading to suit the most difficult 
part of the road, which makes the transportation, 
in very many instances, cost fully four times what 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


23 

it would be on a level grade; and bar some classes 
of goods entirely from the market. 

Does the producer or the consumer hear this loss? 

The loss is divided between them by the law of 
supply and demand; in some cases the producer 
loses most, and in other cases the consumer,— de¬ 
pending on the circumstances. 

All this you attribute to had roads? 

The aforegoing has reference to grades only; 
and not to the entire evils of bad roads. 

Origin of Bad Grades. 

Why were such locations made? 

Those who preceded us had to establish our 
freedom; and were not commercial to the extent we 
are; the population was sparse; their means of im¬ 
provement more limited; and to go straight over a 
hill, and down across the next hollow saved the ne¬ 
cessity of digging, and only required them to cut 
the brush out, that they might carry in the game. 

These locations originating from necessity rather 
than choice were improved from time to time; each 
generation, like us dreading the loss of the work 
already done, evaded the duty of making a change. 

In the meantime, titles and improvements were 
made to conform with the existing roads; and other 
roads located with reference to old surveys of land, 
causing the difficulties of change to accumulate about 
as fast as the demand for a better grade became ap¬ 
parent; and now we face the condition with an 
enormous commerce to handle. 


24 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


Will you explain more clearly the difference be¬ 
tween our ancestors’ financial circumstances and 
oursf 

When the valuation of land was from one to five 
cents per acre, to have made ordinary dirt roads 
around hills instead of over them would have cost 
more than the real and personal property of the 
country would have brought. 

To illustrate the difference clearly, in 1625 Man¬ 
hattan island, consisting of over twenty thousand 
acres, was purchased for $24; in 1907 the real es¬ 
tate alone, to say nothing of personal property, 
was assessed at about six billion dollars, of which 
two-thirds is in Manhattan alone. In the former 
case they had but little need for roads, and had 
neither the money nor appliances with which to 
build them; and now we have, the demand, the 
means and modern machinery to make the needed 
improvements, and will be destitue of an apology 
if we fail. 


The Condition Faced. 

Woidd it be well to abandon all our old roads and 
make new ones? 

From experience we know that whatever expense 
is added to an imperfect design will result in a 
practical loss. 

But to change our locations will require valuable 
property to be moved. 

According to observations made to arrive at per¬ 
fection a correct design is first necessary, and then 
proceed with a definite object in view. 



A Fine Finish in a Poor Location 







BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


25 


Is public opinion ripe for such a change? 

The people are willing for improvement, but are 
disposed to make it gradual. 

Do yon mean to gradually improve a bad loca¬ 
tion f 

To partially improve a location will cost decid¬ 
edly more in the end than to change it all at one 
time; to make the expense gradual is the object. 

Then your idea is to make perfect what you do 
make? 

On a perfect design, always and whether the 
work is completed or not may depend on circum¬ 
stances. 

This principle holds infallibly true with regard 
to the location, establishment and building of all 
new roads, and the modification of very many of 
our old ones. 

But do you recommend that some of the mistakes 
remain for all time? 

A wrong cannot be defended; and therefore is 
not considered; but to correct all the past mistakes 
at one time would cause a heavy burden on one 
generation. 

Shall we continue to improve our imperfect loca¬ 
tions? 

Necessity which “ knows no law,” requires that 
the old roads be kept passable until properly lo¬ 
cated roads can be provided; but to make any per¬ 
manent improvement on an imperfect location is 
worse than folly, as illustrated in the preceding 
plate. 


26 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


How do yon make any act worse than folly f 

For some of the past generations to block out 
roads in the wrong place was folly; and for us to 
build, permanent expensive roads on, manifestly 
bad locations is worse than folly; because any costly 
resurfacing of a road will fasten it there for gen¬ 
erations. 

Then how can the burden be made reasonable, 
and the correct result eventually produced? 

Locate new roads accurately; build them perma¬ 
nently; prevent practical waste of funds; and to 
this economy add the labor of vagrants, tramps, 
and convicts, to change and improve the old roads 
one after another. 

Convict Labor on Roads. 

What may be said regarding convict labor on 
public roads? 

Working convicts on the public roads has passed 
the experimental stage. 

“ The cost of labor per convict per day on roads 
in the following States is: — 


Florida . 

... .30 

to 

•so 

Georgia . 


to 

• 32 

Kentucky. 

... .50 

to 

.60 

Louisiana . 

... .50 

to 

.60 

Mississippi . 

. .. .15 

to 

•45 

North Carolina . . . . 

. .. .15 

to 

.40 

South Carolina . .. . 

... .17 

to 

.22 

Tennessee . 


to 

.40 

Texas . 


to 

.40 

Virginia . 

.25 

to 

•50 












BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


27 


War Enemy to Roads. 

What in addition to convict labor would help the 
good road cause? 

To evade the evils of war; as the cost and devas¬ 
tation of the war between the States from 1861- 
1865 and the four years’ service of the men en¬ 
gaged on both sides would have built good roads 
throughout the United States. 

What added to profound peace will give the 
cause of good roads momentum? 

To always require our knowledge to go in ad¬ 
vance of our enthusiasm; and make every under¬ 
taking a success; because every mistake will thwart 
the good road enterprise. 

Road Knowledge. 

What is most important to the good road cause? 

Universal knowledge amongst the people. If 
everybody understood the subject, lots of our latter 
day engineers would be dumped on the scrap pile. 

Hoiv bring the implements of laying of? roads 
within the reach and understanding of the com¬ 
monly educated people, or if they had the knowl¬ 
edge to handle and means to purchase such instru¬ 
ments would it justify them? 

Every schoolhouse should be provided with a 
road instrument; and every pupil instructed in the 
simplicity of its use, to enable all to be intelligent; 
and those directly interested to see and understand 
how to make their own instrument and advance to¬ 
ward perfection. 


28 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


How could an instrument be made at a small 
cost and its accuracy proven by the fundamental 
rules of arithmetic, now taught in all the schools? 

To make an instrument at a nominal cost to give 
degrees up or down, the same as a compass gives 
them right or left; take a surfaced seasoned board 
free from knots about twenty inches long, seven 
and one-sixth inches wide, full measure; spread 
the points of a compass seven and one-sixth inches 
apart, and from the edge of the board strike a 
half-circle, which will consume the width of the 
board; then for appearance and to reduce the 
weight, curve the inside out as shown in the draw¬ 
ing, leaving the top and half-circle about two inches 
wide. 

Cut a very small notch across the top, make fast 
a small silk cord at the opposite side, bring the 
cord across through the notch and to the other 
end of the cord hang a plumb-bob; mark the center 
and make marks one-eighth of an inch from center 
to center, ranging from the outer edge of the semi¬ 
circle to the part on top where the cord crosses. 

Place a hinge on the opposite side with an 
aperture of fully one-fourth inch in diameter; 
make a round straight stick, or Jacob staff about 
one and three-fourths inches in diameter and for a 
medium-sized man about five feet long. 

On the lower end place an iron socket so that 
the Jacob staff will stick in the ground; place a 
simple hinge as shown in the drawing to pass 
through the Jacob staff, with a washer in and out¬ 
side to protect the wood, and regulate the tension; 
make the upright part of the hinge of the Jacob 



Surveying Instruments 








BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


29 

staff slightly sloping and an exact fit in the part 
of the hinge on the semicircle. 

Prepare an object six feet long for the flagman, 
by making a lath two inches wide, seven-eighths of 
an inch thick, and a thin, round piece of iron six 
inches in diameter; the upper half painted black, 
and the lower half white; rivet a piece to this to 
fit and slide up or down on the lath; and regulate 
the tension by means of a thumb screw on the op¬ 
posite side. Stick the Jacob staff in the ground to 
the top of the socket; hang the semicircle on the 
hinge; and regulate the object to be sighted at by 
means of the set screw, so that the portion painted 
black is above and the part painted white is below 
the top of the semicircle with the view of sighting 
at the center of the object. 

After this regulation has been made the Jacob 
staff should be stuck in the ground exactly the same 
distance each time to save the time of readjusting 
the height of the object to be sighted at. 

In teaching the simplicity of this to a class in 
school a block with a hole in it to stand the Jacob 
staff in can be placed on the rostrum. 

Send the flagman ahead, with strict orders to al¬ 
ways hold the object to be sighted at plumb. 

When the plumbline on the semicircle reflects in 
the center, you are running level, and each mark 
will indicate up or down the same as a degree will 
right or left on a compass. 

Too much importance can not be attached to 
having the instrument and object sighted at the 
same height; and to standing at right angles, or 
absolutely square from the semicircle when look¬ 
ing at the plumbline. 


30 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


By using care and ordinary skill, when the wind 
is not blowing to interfere with the plumb it will be 
astonishing to find how accurately a grade can be 
run with this simple fixture, made at such a trifling 
cost.* 

This hinge will give the semicircle a double ac¬ 
tion, as it will elevate from either end by turning in 
the Jacob staff, or turn by means of the hinge to 
the right or left the required distance. 

The plumb for convenience should be on the left 
side of the semicircle as shown in the drawing. 

How far will one of those degrees throw a loca¬ 
tion up or down in a mile? 

Practically ninety-two feet, one inch and three- 
fourths. 

How far in one hundred feet? 

Practically one and three-fourths feet, or twenty- 
one inches. 

What do you mean by the word practically in this 
connection? 

By practically in this connection is meant, not 
absolutely correct, but as near as modern engineers 
have seen fit to calculate the fraction. 

If an instrument zvere made to conform to the 
above measurements, how could the correctness of 
the theory be demonstrated clearly, by the ordinary 
rules of arithmetic to the entire satisfaction of per- 

* For the purpose of adjusting instruments suspend a cord 
from the ceiling, in a room where there is no draft; and 
place the plumb bob in a bucket of water and allow it time 
to adjust itself and the line will hang absolutely plumb. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


3i 

sons who never had the benefit of more than a com¬ 
mon school education? 

A circle is divided for convenience into 360° and 
the semicircle is spaced in eight inches and therefore 
180 eighth inches, or the half-circle, which divided 
by 3.1416 gives a quotient of 57.29 eighths and 
there are eight eighths in one inch, and 57.29 di¬ 
vided by 8 equals 7.16 and a fraction lost in each 
division, makes seven and one-sixth inches, near 
enough for all practical purposes. 

Suppose a larger or smaller half-circle was de¬ 
sired , how could it be made by this calculation t 

To avoid mistakes it would be safest not to make 
any calculation; and if a larger half-circle was de¬ 
sired, use quarter-inch spaces for degrees and make 
the radius of the semicircle fourteen and one-third 
inches. 

Suppose a line of road was laid off giving percen¬ 
tage, and you followed with an instrument giving 
degrees. 

In making the comparison, reckon one degree 
to deflect one and three-fourths feet in one hundred 
feet, and one per cent, to deflect one foot in one 
hundred feet. 

How make a semicircle giving percentage instead 
of degrees? 

An instrument giving per cent, instead of de¬ 
grees is made on the same plan except the measure¬ 
ments must differ in the same ratio per cent, differs 
from degrees. 

Give the measurements of a semicircle giving 
one per cent, for every eighth of an inch in its out¬ 
side circle. 


32 


(ROAD LOCATING AND 


Take a surface-seasoned board about three and 
a half feet long, absolutely straight, twelve and a 
half inches wide; open the compass twelve and one- 
half inches, and from the center of one edge of the 
board strike a half-circle, which will consume 
twenty-five inches of the upper edge of the board; 
the plumbline at the center of this half-circle will 
indicate that the board is level on top, which will 
prove by reversing; and spaces of one-eighth inch 
each on the circle will show a rise or fall of one 
foot to every hundred feet of distance, or one per 
cent. 

How can this proposition he demontratedf 

Reckoning one line to be level, a distance of one 
hundred feet; another line to diverge one foot or 
twelve inches from this; and reckoning eight eighths 
in one inch we have 8x 12, or 96 eighths of di¬ 
vergence; and as the line is 100 feet long or 1,200 
inches, we find that 96 is contained in 1,200, twelve 
and one-half times. 

Therefore the two lines must be traced twelve 
and one-half inches for a divergence of one-eighth 
of an inch. 

What is the most simple proof of this proposi¬ 
tion? 

If two lines diverge one-eighth of an inch in a 
distance of twelve and one-half inches, to diverge 
one-fourth of an inch will require twenty-five inches 
of distance, or to diverge one inch will require 100 
inches of distance; and to diverge twelve inches or 
one per cent, will require a distance of 1,200 inches, 
equal to 100 feet. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


33 


Is there any thing to interfere with the accuracy 
of this simple instrument? 

There is a possibility of this instrument either 
warping, or slightly expanding or contracting by 
change of weather. 

How could this he very largely prevented? 

By gluing three thin boards together, the grain 
of the two outside ones running lengthwise and the 
middle one crosswise, a thickness, when finished, 
which would measure slightly less than an inch; 
and of this combination make the semicircle and 
then paint and varnish it. 

How near could a line be run with this simple 
inexpensive instrument? 

Theoretically a line should be run correct. 

What about it practically? 

Practically, an ingenious, careful person, when 
the wind does not interfere with the plumb, should 
keep within about one-fourth inch per ioo yards. 

Do you recognize that but few of our railroads 
are within this small deviation? 

Railroads are not all laid off by naturally ingeni¬ 
ous men; and sometimes carelessness, awkwardness 
and lack of interest enters largely into the proposi¬ 
tion. 

Is there anything to justify a road contractor in 
ozvning one of these instruments? 

The possession of a good semicircle, with prac¬ 
tical knowledge of its use will enable a man to ap¬ 
proach perfection, the first effort; and not require, 


34 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


at heavy expense, to build, change and experiment 
to become accurate and then likely fail. 

From your explanation this inexpensive instru¬ 
ment would he very usefxd to insure uniformity of 
grade; but our roads in mountainous parts of the 
country usually ascend streams; and the grade con¬ 
stantly, though slightly continues to increasef 

For the want of a better term these may be called 
sag lines; and while the plan of semicircle just ex¬ 
plained would be highly useful; a slightly more ex¬ 
pensive and far better instrument could be made, or 
purchased from some one prepared to manufacture 
them. 

Explain how a better instrument could be made 
for the purpose of running a constantly increasing 
grade line . 

An instrument to serve that purpose best should 
be made in large numbers by a person or firm pre¬ 
pared for the work, who could sell them for less 
than a single instrument could be made by an in¬ 
dividual. 

Suggest a plan to place this instrument in the 
hands of the people at a low price. 

The United States Government could manufac¬ 
ture and sell them at cost, at a very reasonable 
price; lose nothing and benefit the good road cause 
without increasing either the direct or indirect taxes. 

Explain the plan and advantages of this instru¬ 
ment? 

An instrument, on the above plan will be inex¬ 
pensive and readily understood by the masses who 
may only have a common school education. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


35 

The mathematical principles are the same as the 
other semicircle; the mechanism differs. 

The top should be three and a half feet long, an 
inch and a half, or two inches square, formed of 
various layers of wood glued together to prevent 
springing, and varnished a color which will not 
glimmer. 

The half-circle should be of metallic substance, 
an inch and a half wide and fully an eighth of an 



inch thick; with a slot in the center about six inches 
long. 

The distance from the lower part of the wood 
to the outside of the half-circle must be twelve and 
a half inches if percentage instead of degrees is de¬ 
sired. The curved part should have the percentage 
marked exactly one-eighth of an inch apart from 
center to center, on the exact principle of an ordi¬ 
nary square or other measure;— be galvanized; 
and be one inch longer at each end than a half-cir¬ 
cle, to form a tenant, in a mortise in the wood, and 
riveted fast, in order to have just a half-circle be¬ 
low the wooden top, or twelve and a half inches 
from the lower side of the wood to the outside of 
the half-circle. 

At the bottom of the wood place a swing or pen- 






ROAD LOCATING AND 


36 

dulum by means of a hinge, the center of which 
must be just in range with the bottom of the wood, 
in order that the oscillation of the pendulum will be 
just twelve and a half inches. 

In this swing or pendulum place a spirit level 
and arrange a setscrew through the slot in the 
half-circle to hold the pendulum in place. 

Observe here that the pendulum is formed of 
two pieces, one on each side of the half-circle, be¬ 
tween which is the level and rod on which the turn- 
buckle at the right is placed; and the setscrew near 
the base of the pendulum passes through the slot 
in the half-circle and through both portions of the 
pendulum, insuring permanence when desirable, or 
allowing it to oscillate by releasing the setscrew and 
moving the turnbuckle at the right. 

When uniformity is required, fasten the pendu¬ 
lum by means of the setscrew to suit the desired 
grade; and don’t allow it to be changed from end to 
end of the route.* 

* No one is authorized to insinuate, or even to imagine that 
the author of this book recommends either form of semicir¬ 
cle herein explained as being superior to the various engi¬ 
neering instruments now in use at a cost of from fifty to one 
hundred times as much. But the object is to fully simplify 
the theory to the understanding of the interested masses, 
that they may better appreciate the results of natural, ac¬ 
quired, and persistent efforts made by engineers with more 
expensive instruments; such for example as when workmen 
started from opposite sides of the Alps mountain, thirteen 
miles apart, and when they met the deviation was less than 
one foot; and that they may more readily approach perfec¬ 
tion by being constantly in possession of the correct theory 
at nominal cost of mechanism to depreciate by time, weather 
and constant use; and to be in position to detect, awkward¬ 
ness, laziness, and natural inability, which occasionally dis¬ 
graces the professional class. The student is also reminded 
that in addition to the expensive engineering instruments, va- 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 
To Find Percentage of Grade With a Level. 


Suppose you wanted the percentage of rise or 
fall, and only had a spirit level with which to ob¬ 
tain it, how would you proceed? 

A quick, simple, inexpensive plan would be, to 
make a piece of wood, one inch square at one end, 
and one by one and one-fourth inches at the other 
end, twenty-five inches long; and lay it on a spirit 
level, for one per cent, of rise or fall. 

How do you know that a slope of one-fourth 
inch, in a distance of twenty-five inches, will give 
one per cent? 

If two lines diverge one-fourth inch in a distance 
of twenty-five inches, they will diverge one inch in 
a distance of one hundred inches, or twelve inches 
in a distance of twelve hundred inches. 

Suppose you wanted a rise or fall of more than 
one per cent.? 

Make the slope of the twenty-five-inch piece of 
wood one-fourth inch for each one per cent, de¬ 
sired per hundred feet of distance. 

Could this idea be utilized in any other way? 

A spirit level could be mounted on a Jacob staff 
or tripod and a tapering piece of wood laid on it to 
give uniformity when required. 

rious attachments are made to compasses, for taking eleva¬ 
tions and depressions, and that if any one would see fit to 
place one of these attachments on a compass and make a de¬ 
sign; that any other person could follow with a semicircle and 
accurately, or more nearly execute the same design; but with¬ 
out natural ability and persistent effort you cannot hope to 
succeed with all the instruments that have ever been in¬ 
vented. 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


38 

Can you simplify this idea further? 

A spirit level could be made twenty-five inches 
long with adjustable sights at each end, to rise or 
fall a quarter of an inch for each one per cent, re¬ 
quired; or twelve and a half inches long; and rise 
or fall one-eighth of an inch for each one per cent, 
desired. A thumb screw to hold the level steady 
on the hinge will be an advantage to any of these 
inexpensive fixtures; and enable the masses to pro¬ 
ceed accurately at a trifling expense. 

If you desired to change an old Indian trail road, 
into a uniform modern road, how approximate the 
grade at a nominal cost? 

Measure the circumference of a buggy wheel; 
tie a white rag around one spoke, count the revo¬ 
lutions while you drive over the distance; obtain 
the elevation by means of a level; and in this way 
approximate the percentage of grade. • 

Grade by Increased Angles. 

In ascending a stream how make a grade in the 
form of increased angles of rise? 

First ascend the main stream and thoroughly ex¬ 
amine the topography of the country; and find what 
distance the tributaries are apart; and suppose the 
first hollow by exact measurement of elevation and 
distance if found to require a one per cent, rise; 
then set the instrument at exactly one per cent, 
rise and run an experimental line, which, if in all 
respects is satisfactory, adopt it as a permanent 
line. 

Then suppose to the next tributary or hollow 
to be crossed; after an exact measurement of the 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


39 


distance and elevation is made; it shows a grade 
of one and a half per cent., or whatever the increase 
is, set the instrument to suit that rise; and so con¬ 
tinue increasing the angle of rise from one tributary 
to the other until the source of the main stream is 
reached. 

Or if the distance between the tributaries is long 
it may be divided into two, three; or any number of 
angles or stations of rise which may be found best. 

Sag Line. 

When a sag line is to be run, relax the setscrew 
at the bottom; and insert a pencil in the turnbuckle, 
and experiment will determine how far to move the 
turnbuckle to increase or diminish the grade a given 
amount in ioo feet or ioo yards. 

No definite rule can be given here without know¬ 
ing the proportions of the screw to be used in the 
turnbuckle. 

What reason is there for making this instru¬ 
ment such large proportions? 

Because the weight would be insignificant, the 
difference in cost nominal; and the accuracy in¬ 
creased; however, if the pendulum were made six 
and one-fourth inches long, the half-circle twelve 
and a half inches from out to out, the per cent, 
marks one-sixteenth of an inch and the top twenty- 
one inches long instead of forty-two inches; and in 
all respects reduced mechanically it would answer 
a good purpose; and might be generally preferred. 

Could this instrument be used on a tripod? 

This instrument could be used with a slightly 


40 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


different tripod from that on which other instru¬ 
ments are used. 

Will you explain clearly the differencef 

The ordinary plan of tripod could be used by 
making an extension to screw on where a compass 
or other instrument is placed. 

What advantages are gained by using a tripodf 

On comparatively level ground, the exact height 
can be more accurately obtained, greater steadiness 
is secured, and in some places the solidity of the 
ground renders it difficult to cause a Jacob staff to 
penetrate. 

On very steep ground where the surface is soft 
a Jacob staff is most convenient. 

For practical work an instrument would be more 
complete if supplied with both tripod and Jacob 
staff. 


Maximum Grade. 

Should the law define a maximum grade on 
which public road money should be spent? 

The multifarious circumstances present such 
widely different cases, that it would be difficult, if 
possible, to adopt a maximum grade to suit all re¬ 
quirements. 

Has a legal grade limit ever been attempted? 

The act of March 29th, 1806, establishing the Old 
National Pike from Cumberland, Maryland, to 
Wheeling, now West Va., provided that the grade 
should not exceed five degrees, which is equal to 
eight and three-fourths feet of elevation, in a dis¬ 
tance of one hundred feet. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


4i 


Was there a good reason for such a specification? 

To specify the amount of grade, smoothness of 
surface; and solidity of foundation, enabled team¬ 
sters to regulate the weight of their load to suit the 
strength of their teams. 

If there was an advantage in this limitation of 
grade, why not establish it as a rule? 

The freely admitted advantage is embraced in 
the fact, that without a specification they might 
have made some of it six or seven degrees; but 
when the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was after¬ 
ward built between the same points on a maximum 
grade of two and two-tenths per cent., the fact was 
fully established that the grade of the Pike might 
have been less than eight and seventy-five-one hun¬ 
dredths per cent.; and that while the law in the 
former case produced good results, the application 
of more mature knowledge in the latter case, mani¬ 
festly produced far superior results. 

Do you know of any other legal grade limit? 

In the State of West Va. a law was passed pro¬ 
hibiting the expenditure of public road money on 
any grade exceeding five degrees, without a special 
order from the court. 

What were the practical results of this lawf 

This law emanating from a desire for easy grades, 
founded on justice; and designed to prevent the 
practical waste of public funds, afforded an apology 
for engineers who were too lazy, or not sufficiently 
informed to first investigate the topography of the 
country from end to end of the route, and produce 
the very best maximum grade under all the circum- 


42 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


stances, which might have been less than half of 
five degree; — they frequently run with apparently 
no object in view, except to keep within the limits 
of the law, get the job off of hands; and collect 
their pay; and in so doing went over the greater 
part of the distance without making the requisite 
elevation, and when up to the difficulty found it 
easier to petition the Court, than to rerun the route. 

The petitions were usually granted on the ground 
that the courts had more faith in the competency 
of the engineer than in themselves; and also they 
were only in possession of one side of the evidence. 

Could not the law have been amended to correct 
this evil? 

Every provision added to a law affords a new 
opportunity for evasion; and every legal restriction 
tends to trammel mental discretion. 

Should public ■<opinion establish a rulef 

No safe rule of law or opinion except to do the 
best possible under the circumstances can safely 
be established. 

>» 

Sag Line and Angles of Rise Combined. 

Will you explain more fully your ideas as to 
sag lines in ascending a stream? 

For illustration suppose a stream to be ascended 
is fifteen miles long; on account of the first cost 
and maintenance of bridges, it will likely be most 
economical to place the entire road on one side or 
the other; in order to make an intelligent decision 
as to the best side, ascend the stream and fully 
investigate. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


43 

What are some important things to consider dur¬ 
ing this investigation? 

The number of tributaries and bridges required; 
the character of ground, number of ledges, obstruc¬ 
tions, and first cost of construction; the solidity 
of surface, and cost of maintenance of the road 
after it is built; the improvements to be moved 
and cost of right of way; which side of the stream 
has the most population and greatest commerce; 
which side will require the greatest number of 
bridges across the main stream to get to the road; 
the uniformity of fall the stream has; and any 
and all other circumstances entering into the case, 
tending to formulate a design to satisfy all future 
generations. 

What idea he sure to leave out of this investiga¬ 
tion? 

If an old Indian trail, or pig path road exists up 
this hollow in proportion as its value is considered 
your reputation as a modern engineer, and the 
utility of the new road will be depreciated. 

Suppose the rise of the stream increases regu¬ 
larly? 

In that case the grade of the road may be made, 
not approaching nearer the water, than double the 
elevation of the highest known flood. 

Suppose the fall is irregular? 

In that case valuable information can be obtained 
by forming stations every quarter or half mile, 
measure the distance, and elevation and mark 
plainly each station the said height above the water 
and make notes of the entire route. 


44 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


If this duty is carefully performed what advan¬ 
tages will accrue? 

This will show whether the stations have a uni¬ 
form increase of rise. 

Suppose they have not, what do? 

Then calculate what change is necessary to make 
them uniform; and likely by elevating some of the 
stations a small amount of uniformity can be ob¬ 
tained. 

Clearly state your meaning . 

The first quarter of a mile may be one per cent, 
or a rise of 13 2-10 feet; then by investigation the 
other quarters may have one, two or three feet 
more rise regularly, or the second quarter may 
have three feet and the third only two feet addi¬ 
tional rise and the stations may be changed or 
averaged to make the angles of rise increase uni¬ 
formly. 

But suppose they cannot he so arranged? 

A thorough investigation will determine what 
is best to do, and in proportion as the work is 
slighted the location will be forever damaged. 

How mark the line after it is permanently made? 

Pegs should be permanently placed not further 
than 100 feet apart, to enable the contractor or 
builder to keep the exact route. 

A Grade Against a Mountain. 

How lay off a uniform grade along the side of 
a mountain? 

First ascertain if there is more than one feasible 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


45 


route; if so which is the best one; determine the 
starting point; and place desired to reach; measure 
the difference in elevation; and distance in which 
to overcome it; determine the amount of rise in 
each hundred feet or hundred yards; adjust the 
instrument; screw it fast; run the line, avoiding 
awkwardness, and hit the peg at the other end. 

Suppose you slightly missed the peg? 

In that case change the instrument the amount 
necessary and rerun the line.* 

How to Read a Compass. 

What is the principal difference between a semi¬ 
circle, a transit and a compass? 

The semicircle and transit are both used to 
measure distance up and down; and a compass is 
used to measure direction to the right or left. 

What general terms are used in the reading of 
either one of these instrumentsf 

A degree on a semicircle or transit will point up 
or down 21 inches in 100 feet; or 92 feet, 1 inch 
and % in a mile and a compass will point in the 
direction of right or left in the same proportion. 

One per cent, means one foot in each 100 feet, 
or 52 8-10 feet in a mile, whether up or down, 
right or left. 

How do you approximate direction? 

When we face the East our back is toward the 

* Any owner of real estate, who desires to lay off a road 
on his premises for pleasure, or to get out a body of timber; 
to take levels or measure elevations will find a semicircle con¬ 
venient, and, inexpensive; in fact, it can be homemade. 


46 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


West; our left hand toward the North, and our 
right toward the South. 

Northeast is midway between north and east. 
Northwest is midway between north and west. 
Southeast is midway between south and east; and 
Southwest is midway between south and west. 

How measure direction more accurately? 

Direction is measured more accurately by a com¬ 
pass. 

Describe a compass. 

A Plane Compass consists of a circular box of 
brass, usually about six inches in diameter, resting 
upon an arm of the same metal about fourteen 
inches in length. 

At the extremities of the arm are vertical at¬ 
tachments through which are fine slits, terminated 
at intervals by circular apertures, which serve as 
sights in directing the instrument upon any point. 

At the center of the box is a small vertical pin, 
upon which is balanced a slender magnetized bar 
of steel called the needle. 

Turning with a free horizontal motion, the 
pointed ends of the needle transverse the graduated 
circumference of the circle. 

The plane of the sights passes through the center 
of the circle and cuts the circumference in two 
points marked N. and S., otherwise designated 
as the north and the south points of the instrument. 
From these points the graduation of the circle 
runs 90° in each direction to the points marked 
E. and W. 

A circle of plate-glass forms the cover of the 
box. Two small spirit levels are placed at right 



BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 47 

angles to each other upon the arm, to aid in render¬ 
ing the plane of the instrument horizontal. 

The compass is mounted upon a three-legged 
support called a tripod, or upon a single staff 
called a Jacob staff, with which it is so connected 


as to admit of being turned in any desired direc¬ 
tion. 

In using the compass, the surveyor should keep 
the south end toward his person, and read the 
bearings from the north end of the needle. 

He will observe that the letters E. and W. on 













48 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


the face of the compass are reversed from their 
natural position, to correspond with the line of 
the sights, in order that the direction be correctly 
read. 

Can you more clearly explain why the E. and 
W. are reversed from their natural positions? 

To illustrate this apparent contradiction, let us 
form a circle; and on this circle correctly mark, 
North, South, East and West; and set the compass 
in the center of this circle; then let one person 
stand south of the compass and turn the sights to 
point half way between the North and East on 
the correctly marked circle and he will be sighting 
toward the Northeast on the circle and reading 
N. 45 0 E. on the compass and the North end of the 
needle will be between the N. and E. to facilitate 
the reading. 

Then let another person stand on the North 
side of the compass, and sight the other way; and 
he will be sighting toward the Southwest on the 
correctly marked circle and reading S. 45 0 W. on 
the compass; and the south end of the needle will 
be between the letters S. and W. to facilitate the 
reading. 

Then let the person on the south side of the 
compass turn the sights to point half way between 
the North and West, on the correctly-marked 
circle; and he will be sighting toward the North¬ 
west on the circle and reading N. 45 0 W. on the 
compass and the North end of the needle will 
be between the letters N. and W. to facilitate the 
reading. 

Then let the person on the North side of the 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


49 


compass sight the other way; and he will be sight¬ 
ing toward the Southeast on the correctly marked 
circle and reading S. 45 ° E. on the compass and 
the South end of the needle will be between the 
letters S. E. to facilitate the reading. 

How read the other points of the Compass? 

The figures expressed on the instrument show 
how many degrees from North or South are re¬ 
quired to point in any direction; and are read on 
the same principles, which have been shown as 
to N.E., N.W. and S.E. and S.W. 

The fractional parts of a degree are expressed 
on the principle that 60 seconds make a minute 
and 60 minutes make a degree. 

For illustration, if the sights are turned 2j4, 
degrees from the North, toward the West, it is 
read N. 2 0 30' W., and all other points on a like 
principle, are read as the figures clearly show. 

How to Lay Off a Curve. 

Curves are usually laid off with a compass; and 
for convenience a circle is divided into 360 degrees, 
and reckoning the circumference of a circle to be 
36,000 feet, if divided into spaces of 100 feet each, 
there are 360 spaces; therefore we find that 100 
feet of a 36,000 foot circle is one degree; we also 
.find by dividing 36,000 by 3.1416, to obtain the 
diameter; and that quotient by 2 that the radius 
is 5.729 and a fraction, usually counted 5,730, and 
if we set a compass on a 36,000 foot curve and 
take the tangent line as a base marked a 


50 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


a. 



and for every distance of ioo feet on the circle 
deflect one degree that the circle will be regular 
and the curve one degree. 

What do you mean by deflecting one degree? 

It is meant that if the compass is .set at b, 
to change one degree of the compass from the 
tangent line a, toward the left for every ioo feet 
of measurement on the curve. 

Or if the radius of the circle is half of 5,730 
feet, equal to 2,865 feet, for each hundred feet 
measurement we deflect two degrees, called a two 
degree curve. Or if the radius is one-third of 5.730 
feet equal to 1,910 feet, deflect three degrees, called 
a three degree curve. 

If the radius is one-fourth of 5.730 feet, or 
1,432^2 feet, deflect 4 degrees, called a four degree 
curve. If one-fifth of 5.730 feet, equal to 1,146 
feet, deflect five degrees, called a five degree curve; 
and so continue to divide the radius of a one degree 
curve by the required number. 






BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 51 

A Curve Without a Compass. 

Suppose you desired to form a curve and had 
no compass? 

In that case measure the distance straight from 
the beginning to the end of the curve, and from 
the center of this line measure square out the 
distance* the curve should be placed. 

t 

Segment.* 

For convenience in practice the following table 
is selected, which is self-explanatory; to be used 
for reference and not expected to be memorized 
by anyone. 

By first measuring a straight line from the start 
to the terminus of the curve; then set a peg out 
from the center of the base line the distance the 
curve will come out; and by measuring the length 
of the chord and reference to the table determine 
the degree of curve, and in this manner, continue 
to form triangles until the curve is complete. 



*A most simple and accurate way to form a Segment with 
a Compass is to run a base line straight from the beginning to 
the end of the desired curve; from the center of this base 
line run at right angles the length of the chord; at which 
place set the Compass pointing parallel with the base line, 
from which deflect one, two, three, or the required number 
of degrees to each ioo feet until half the length of the seg¬ 
ment is formed; let the Compass set and look through it from 
the opposite end and in like manner lay off the other half of 
the segment. 




h-» 

OCOOCXiCXXlMOsOsOiCnrf^rf^COCOfcOlOi- 4 ^-* 
b^-* t3(M tcf* biH *c*-* k4-i kH b*- «►■* k*- 1 

Degrees of 
Curve 

tgtOHHMMHMMMH 

*-*oooo<io>oi^wtoo©oo<ibsOTrf^cotoi-* 
Od*qoiOi^051s2HOOcOOO<I©Oi^WtOMO 
W^0iCn0i<J00 00<©Oi—t0t0Wrfi.Cn05<J00C0 

100 Feet 

« 

OOOO^OOSOSOSOiC^^v^COCOCOfcOtO^H-i 

•<It000^C00ti-*05t0'<lWc0rf^O05i-‘<|W00rf». 

HOO^H*J^OOWOOilOCOCTi-‘OOrfbO*4W 

oit-^osi-^osooicorf^ootoaio^ooH-iOTCooooi 

200 Feet 

PHHHMHMMMH 

COOOMQOi^WtOHOCDGO^OC^^COtOH 

300 Feet 

OiCnOiOiOiO<l<I<I^JOOOOOOOOOOC©CO«©C©CD 

^MOWoiooMwojoooto^aiOooM^aioo 

OOOOOOOSOOCOOiCOtOOiMOOOOOOOO^IOOiOOtO 

OOWWKItOtOtOWWMHMMMM 

^K)HtO^O)(MOOCOMtnWtOOOOOCiWH 

cnboi-^^^ioccoioot-i^ascoto^-^coto^-j 

COCO<000©^ls30<I^HOO^O©tO^WtO^ 

*40iOH^©OOt|s.Mvic<TOW^rfitO©^OOi 

400 Feet 

CnCnrf^^^^COCOCOtOtOtOtOH-Li—1|—‘1-1 

WMOocnwo^JonoO'arfbHcoQwooocnio 

<|i-‘CnOOtOCn<OtOOtOOH-‘£>.<i©WOc©t-i4a.<l 

0»MH*4bOMOWOi03MMOlCnrfbMO^»M 

OOiOM^MM^WOiHKOOiHWtCKDWS 

500 Feet 

3.926 

7.852 

11.775 

15.694 

19.608 

23.516 

27.416 

31.308 

35.189 

39.059 

42.916 

46.759 

50.587 

54.399 

58.193 

61.969 

65.724 

69.459 

73.171 

76.859 

600 Feet 























to •—* I— 11 •—* *-» 1—*t—*(—l l—l t—It—lh-1)—»t—IMHM 

OOC00000'<l<I0505Cn0Trf^^C000t0t0i—‘t—*o 

kH M-* M-“ M-* M~* uH kH M*- 1 

Degrees of 
Curve 

kfk^^^cococowcooocotooatotofcototototo 

Wls3H-‘OCOOO-<IOi4i-OOtOi-‘OcOC»<I050ii^tO 
*<!050trf^03t0H-*OC0Q0-<J0i0Ti£‘-C0C0t0>—‘©CO 

rf*.CnOiOiCnOiOiCi©*<I-<IOOOOC©cO©Ot- l to<W 

100 Feet 

1—• 1—‘1—‘1—‘ H-» 1—‘Ml->Mh» h-i 1—1|—1 
-^©©©OrOi^^OOCOCOtOtOH-h-i©©©©© 

OOCOCnOOOtO^ICOCO^OCSt-^WOO^OOtt- 1 

©COO-<|rf^H-OOi^i-‘COOxtOOOCntOOOOii-‘OOCn! 

CnO*CHhf».<MtOi- t CO<lOia30^jrfi.©<iCOCOOiO 

200 Feet 

20.516 

21.483 

22.448 

23.412 

24.374 

25.334 

26.293 

27.250 

28.206 

29.159 

30.111 

31.060 

32.008 

32.953 

33.896 

34.837 

35.775 

36.712 

37.645 

38.576 

300 Feet 

36.294 

37.986 

39.673 

41.355 

43.031 

44.701 

46.365 
48.024 
49.676 
51.321 
52.959 
54.591 
56.215 
57.832 
59.441 
61.042 
62.636 
64.221 
65.797 

67.365 

400 Feet 

56.353 

58.943 

61.521 

64.085 

66.636 

69.171 

71.692 
74.197 
76.687 
79.159 
81.614 
84.052 
86.471 
88.872 
91.254 
93.616 
95.957 
98.278 
100.577 
102.855 

500 Feet 

80.523 

84.161 

87.772 

91.355 

94.908 

98.431 

101.922 
105.381 
108.807 
112.197 
115.552 
118.870 
122.150 
125.391 
128.593 

131.753 
134.872 
137.948 
140.981 
143.969 

600 Feet 
























OCOCOOOOO-JMOSOSCrtCn^^COOOtObOi- 1 *-* 
k*-* k*-> fc*-> »j»- wH toH mH tJH mH 

Degrees of 
Curve 

5.345 

10.687 

16.024 

21.355 

26.676 

31.984 

37.279 

42.557 

47.816 

53.053 

58.267 

63.455 

68.615 

73.744 

78.840 

83.901 

88.924 

93.909 

98.851 

103.750 

700 Feet 

6.981 

13.957 

20.925 

27.881 

34.821 

41.740 

48.634 

55.500 

62.333 

69.129 

75.885 

82.596 

89.258 

95.868 

102.422 

108.916 

115.346 

121.709 

128.000 

134.217 

800 Feet 

8.835 

17.663 

26.477 

35.272 

44.040 

52.776 

61.471 

70.121 

78.717 

87.255 

95.728 

104.129 

112.452 

120.691 

128.840 

136.893 

144.844 

152.687 

160.417 

168.029 

900 Feet 

10.907 

21.803 
32.679 

43.525 
54.330 
65.084 
75.778 
86.402 
96.945 
107.397 
117.751 
127.995 
138.120 
148.118 
157.979 
167.695 
177.255 
186.653 
195.880 
204.928 

1000 Feet 

13.197 

26.378 

39.530 

52.637 

65.684 

78.657 

91.542 
104.323 
116.986 
129.517 
141.903 
154.129 
166.182 
178.048 
189.716 
201.171 
212.403 
223.398 
234.145 
244.633 

1100 Feet 

15.704 

31.388 

47.028 

62.606 

78.098 

93.486 

108.747 

123.862 

138.810 

153.572 

168.128 

182.459 

196.545 

210.370 

223.914 
237.160 
250.093 
262.694 
274.949 
286.843 

1200 Feet 
























BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


55 


The above figure represents a base line of 800 
feet and 7 degrees of curve; by reference to the 
table we find the chord of the first triangle is 
95.868/1000 feet; the second 24.328/1000 and the 
third 6.105/1000 feet. 



The above represents a plan when a piece of 
straight road can be taken as a base line and deflect 
21 inches in each 100 feet of distance for one degree 
of curve; 21 inches for each 50 feet of distance for 
two degrees; 21 inches for each 33 1/3 feet of dis¬ 
tance for three degrees; 21 inches for each 25 feet 
of distance for four degrees; 21 inches for each 20 
feet of distance for five degrees, etc. 

While the aforegoing information will enable 
a mechanic to more accurately follow the line of a 
curve; and by exercising patience and care, lay 
off a new curve to a far better advantage than he 
otherwise could; if the student desires to become 
proficient instead of intelligent on the subject he 
would better learn what is contained in this book; 
become familiar with the use of all the instruments 
and then study higher branches than are now taught 
in the common schools. 

Never conclude that you know it all; but try to 
obtain knowledge every day. 

Cost of Location. 

How much will it cost to locate our roads with 
the accuracy you insist upon? 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


The cost will depend on the circumstances, and 
obstructions; some roads will cost less and others 
more; from $20 to $40 per mile should produce 
good results. 

Suppose it cost an average of $30 per mile, 
would that justify? 

It certainly would pay better to spend $30 on a 
mile of location than to practically waste $800 or 
$1,000 building with no definite object in view. 

But suppose intricacies existed which would make 
it cost $60 per mile to obtain the very best results? 

It matters not what it cost; the amount would 
better be paid, or the enterprise abandoned rather 
than lavish public or private money without an 
accurate design. This, however, would only pre¬ 
sent itself in extreme cases. 

What will produce the required good results? 

Offer what the work is worth; accept of nothing 
short of practical perfection; and educate the people 
to become competent judges of the value of road 
engineering the same as they are on most other 
investments. 


Right of Way. 

After a line is correct and agreed upon, suppose 
the question of right of way arises? 

There are questions of right of way originating 
from a multifarious number of causes, amongst 
which is the topography of the country; boundary 
lines; cutting of water supply; the better accom¬ 
modation of those who pay large amounts of taxes; 
and in some instances, the moving of valuable im- 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


57 


provements; and not infrequently with ignorance, 
selfishness and caprice which may weary the pa¬ 
tience and warp the judgment of the engineer; 
and finally terminate in the permanent injury of 
nearly all the road locations. 

How meet and successfully overcome the dif¬ 
ficulties of rights of way for public roads? 

By first diffusing knowledge on the importance 
of the subject; and creating a public sentiment 
capable of weighing individual objections against 
public interest, as the cases arise. 

What justice is there in forcing a right of way 
for a public road? 

Ordinarily a right of way should be given for 
the public convenience, and enhancement of real 
estate; the owner almost invariably knows that his 
benefits are greater than the damages; and that 
he should give the right of way, but undertakes 
to speculate in the public by claiming damages.* 

When this is manifest , what should be done? 

A right of way should be condemned,— no dam¬ 
ages paid, and the cost collected from the claimant. 

Are there instances where damages should be 
paid? 

There are occasional instances; most frequent 

* When an unreasonable amount is demanded for a right 
of way; and sophistry substituted for reason by the owner, 
it may be argued, that if the land is valuable to that extent, 
the remainder of the tract should be assessed for the purposes 
of taxation, at the price demanded for right of way. 

This comparison will usually appear ridiculous; and assist 
a jury in the assessment of just damages; but other relative 
circumstances to the question will forever prevent the forma¬ 
tion of such a law. 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


58 

where old locations have to be changed; and when 
cases justly requiring damages present themselves 
let them be fully paid by the general public who 
will be benefited thereby. 

In the absence of a rule to govern the multi¬ 
farious conditions of damages can you make a 
suggestion? 

If a competent engineer would first give bond for 
the practical correctness of the route regardless of 
damages; and people were all educated up to a 
point of intelligence on the subject; a jury of twelve 
disinterested freeholders, who would first swear 
that no undue influence had been brought to prevent 
them from rendering a just verdict, in the case, 
their decision as to the amount of damages, and 
the advisability of undertaking the work might be 
as good as can be suggested. 

Then suppose the damages and cost of construc¬ 
tion of a road in the correct place was considered 
unreasonable, what would you suggest? 

In a case where it will not justify to accept the 
best route allow the matter to rest. 

But might not this kill the enterprise? 

Not in a case where a road is a necessity. 

Necessity, public sentiment, enterprise and knowl¬ 
edge will force the improvement where it should 
go; if the law will not accept of a compromise. 

Discretionary Power of Officers. 

Is there any risk in giving road officers discre¬ 
tionary power? 

Power, unless directed by justice and wisdom. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 59 

is always fraught with danger; on the other hand, 
wisdom without authority to act, is ineffectual. 

But you have advocated a general diffusion of 
road knozvledge, in order that all may become in¬ 
telligent. 

True, all may and should be intelligent in order 
to detect the difference between a wise investment 
and a practical waste of funds; but it requires 
natural ability, theory and practice to become pro¬ 
ficient. 

Then your idea is to not allow any one to till 
a position until he first demonstrates his profi¬ 
ciency? 

That would bar every person from making the 
first effort after obtaining all knowledge except 
experience. 

Admitting that a road office is a very important 
trust, hozv will you dispose of the question? 

Let the people all inform themselves, and as¬ 
sume the responsibility of the decision. 

Drainage. 

After the road has been properly laid off and 
the right of way established, and a public record 
made of the proceedings, what is the next impor¬ 
tant thing to consider? 

All the means of crossing or disposing of water 
should be considered and approved. 

Name some of the mistakes regarding drainage. 

The most common mistake is where no effort 
toward drainage is made; where the water is al- 


6o 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


lowed to injure the road more than the travel; an¬ 
other instance is where breakers are made across 
roads instead of running the water under them. 

Do you condemn breakers across roads? 

A good breaker has its advantages; but unless 
made substantial it is short-lived; and to make a 
good breaker costs as much as a pipe which will 
admit the surface of the road being uniform and 4 
dry, instead of a place prohibiting speed, causing 
mud and sometimes ice. 

What reason have you for giving drainage atten¬ 
tion before the road is built? 

It requires less labor to adjust a pipe before the 
road is made; and the requisite amount of fall can 
be regulated more perfectly. 

What sized pipe should be used as a rule? 

No rule can be formulated without knowing the 
volume of water to be conveyed; but the pipe should 
be, at least, double the size ordinarily considered 
necessary; it should have ample fall; be supported 
under its entire length; be protected at each end 



by a wall; arranged if possible to be conveniently 
cleaned out; and some practical persons place a 
screen at the upper end to prevent driftage from 
closing the pipe. 






BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 61 

Are there objections to a screen at the upper end 
of a pipef 

A screen at the upper end of a pipe is liable to 
close up by driftage and cause the water to over¬ 
flow the road, and result in material damage, and 
incur more expense than to place a larger pipe 
with the necessary fall to enable the water to keep 
the way clear. 

What do you think of forming a ditch on the 
sides of a road, and with the material obtained 
build up a road in the center? 

This may answer under some circumstances, but 
where the ground is not much sideling, and stone 
is plentiful, and convenient without cost, a more 
lasting, and less dangerous road can be built, by 
first laying down the drain pipes across, to allow 
the water to flow away; and cut shoulders to form 
a slight amount of crown, or elevation in the cen¬ 
ter, and hold the stone in place, and cover the 
entire road with stone several inches higher than 
the ground on either side, in the form of a fill, 
leaving no ditches on either side unless necessary. 

What objections are there against forming a ditch 
on one or both sides of a road? 

Ditches have to be made when necessary; but 
they are dangerous, especially at night, or passing 
vehicles, at any time; and they frequently cause 
a road to be damp by percolation. 

What do you mean by percolation? 

The penetration, or soaking of water through 
dirt, sand or any material. 


62 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


Do you suppose that water would soak upwards? 

That depends on the interstices of the material. 
The most familiar instance of this is when oil 
ascends a lamp wick by what is known as capillary 
attraction; but water will not ascend through broken 
stone to the same extent on account of the coarse¬ 
ness of the interstices. 

Then your objection to breakers is the dampness 
and mud? 

In addition to the mud in summer, the dampness 
increases the inconvenience by increased freezing 
in winter. 

Are there any other objections to ditchesf 

Ditches frequently contain standing stagnant 
water increasing the liability of contagious diseases. 

Would you abandon the use of ditches? 

When necessary and beneficial, make them; but 
not when they will become a nuisance. 

What is the general principle in this case? 

To dispose of the water in the most effectual 
manner, according to the circumstances of the cases. 

Bridges. 

What are your ideas about bridges over small 
streamsf 

Bridges are a necessity, especially for pedestrians, 
without which a road is practically worthless for 
women and children. 

What is the least expensive bridge? 

When the means are scarce a good foot log, 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


63 


hewed flat on top with a hand rail, is of remarkable 
advantage to pedestrians, especially school chil¬ 
dren. 

What is another inexpensive bridge? 

In rural sections where no cost is attached to 
timber, and where stone is plentiful, a crib on 
each side of the stream, made of round logs, and 
filled with stone; then logs extended from crib to 
crib, flattened or hewed on top sufficient to form 
a plane surface to be covered with boards, will 
last fifteen or twenty years, at an insignificant cost. 

What is the best plan of bridge? 

On a road to be used for all time, if the means 
will admit, it is cheapest and best in the end to build 
all culverts and bridges entirely out of stone. 


Rolling Friction. 

What do you mean by rolling friction? 

By rolling friction is meant the obstructions 
which come in the way of the wheels of machinery 
and vehicles. 

“ Gilmore’s tables show that the same vehicle 
can be moved over steel rails with one-eighth of 
the power that would be required to move it over 
a macadamized road, and with one-eighteenth of 
the power that would be required to move it over 
a gravel road, and with one-twenty-fifth of the 
power that would be required to move it over a 
common earth road in good condition.” 

What is the cause for this vast difference of 
power? 


64 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


The difference in the solidity of the substance 
out of which the road is formed. 

„ Why not form an absolutely solid substance and 
entirely avoid rolling friction? 

All known substances contain interstices or pores 
and in proportion to the softness of the earth road 
as compared to the steel rail the rolling friction 
increases. 

Then do you lay down a difference of one to 
twenty-five as a rule between a steel rail and a 
dirt roadf 

By no means. The table stated “ a common earth 
road in good condition;” and in proportion as a 
lack of drainage causes mud, and loose stone and 
obstructions are permitted on a road the rolling 
friction is increased to more than twenty-five to 
one. 

How will the millions realize this difference who 
never drove a horse on good or bad roadf 

Let them try a pair of roller skates on a smooth 
floor and then on a muddy road. 

Sliding Friction. 

What do you mean by sliding frictionf 

By sliding friction is meant the rubbing of one 
substance against another. 

The difference between the power required to 
run a sleigh over smooth ice, or over a mud road 
illustrates sliding friction very clearly; the differ¬ 
ence between the power required to run a vehicle 
when the spindles are properly lubricated, and one 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


65 

that is dry and the rubbing of the rims of vehicles 
in ruts is enormous, especially when the gauge of 
the vehicles is different or when a wide tire follows 
a narrow one. 

Why does a good lubricant cause the vehicle to 
run easier? 

By closing the interstices of the spindle and 
thereby causing it to be more smooth. 

Gravity. 

What is meant by gravity? 

The attraction of bodies toward the center of 
the earth. 

In what way does this affect transportation? 

The power of a horse is estimated to be capable 
of elevating 33,000 pounds one foot in one minute 
of time, or sixty feet in one hour of time; therefore 
in proportion to the distance weight is unnecessa¬ 
rily elevated, there is a loss of power. 

What are some of the instances in which power 
is lost unnecessarily elevating weight? 

This loss of power is experienced in proportion 
as vehicles are pulled up over stones or other ob¬ 
structions; up out of ruts; or up over banks and 
hills which could be gone around. 

Will you give an estimate of the loss of values 
caused by 'rolling friction, sliding friction and the 
violation of the laws of gravity on our roads f 

The loss is incalculable, on account of the impos¬ 
sibility of obtaining correct data; but we can clearly 
see that opulence, happiness, and civilization abound 


66 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


where there is easy transportation, and that where 
there is no means of communication, a diminution 
of values result and nothing exists worth living for. 

Inertia. 

What is Inertia? 

Inertia is that property which renders a body 
incapable of putting itself in motion when at rest, 
or coming to rest when in motion. 

In consequence of inertia it requires more power 
to start a load, than it afterward does to keep it 
moving. 

To elevate a vehicle over a stone, not only con¬ 
flicts with the law of gravity, but the wheel usually 
comes to rest on the opposite side, and requires 
more force to set it in motion than would have 
been necessary to have kept it going. 

A car in rapid motion, detached from the engine, 
will continue moving for some distance; or if 
brought to sudden rest by being butted against 
another train the concussion will be governed by 
the velocity at which the car was going. 

Therefore in proportion to the unevenness of 
the surface, the vehicle is injured by the numerous 
sudden stops; additional power is required to make 
the various starts; and in proportion to the uneven¬ 
ness of the surface of the road transportation be¬ 
comes more difficult, notwithstanding the general 
grade may be uniform. 

A Side Cut Road. 

How make a new side cut road? 

Reckoning the location to be perfect as hereto- 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 67 

fore explained; and arrangements made for perfect 
drainage; then set pegs on the bearing not more 
than a rod apart; make a yard or two of road about 
a foot wide at each peg; then connect those portions 
of road, and you will have a road one foot wide 
as a gauge. 

Fully test the accuracy of the grade of this foot 
of road as the uniformity of the entire job depends 
on this pattern. 

Cut all the brush below this foot of road at 
least the width desired for half the road when 
finished; and throw them lengthwise below the 
path made for a gauge. 

Dig up all the brush from above the path the 
distance desired for the other half of the width 
and throw them lengthwise below the path. 

If the ground can be plowed, start one horse 
plows, or one horse in front of the other until 
room is obtained for the scraper. 

If the ground is too stony or for any reason not 
to admit of horse power; and the work has to be 
performed by hand, measure the distance in rod 
lengths, and don’t put more than one man on each 
rod. 

See in either or any case that the dirt from above 
the path is judiciously used to form fill below and 
that no spoonful of material is wasted, or lick of 
labor disadvantageously hit in any mile of distance. 

Can you give an estimate of the cost of such a 
roadf 

An intelligent estimate cannot be given without 
knowing the character of the material, width of 
road and depth of cut. 


68 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


What do you principally consider in estimating 
the cost? 

In proportion as the hill is steeper a deeper 
cut is required for the same width of road; in 
proportion as the width is increased the amount 
of cut becomes greater; in wood land the roots are 
very much in the way; some worse than others, 
locust roots probably extend the farthest; and if 
stone have to be blasted, the cost of drilling varies. 

If a side cut road can he built io feet wide for a 
given amount , will it cost double that amount to 
make it 20 feet wide? 

In proportion as the width of the road increases 
the cost of building increases. 

On moderately steep ground the cut is not deep 
for a ten foot road nor the material far to move 
to form the fill, on the lower side. 

If a second contractor follows to make an addi¬ 
tional width of ten feet, the cut is decidedly heavier 
and all the material to be transferred across the 
ten feet of road already made. 

On the other hand the second contractor would 
have a gauge ready; could use horse power from 
the start; and if much time had elapsed the bank 
would be more or less pulverized by the weather 
and more or less of the roots would be decayed. 

Can this work be done to an advantage by in - 
stallments? 

A dirt road through forest land can be made 
at less expense, and more permanent by first mak¬ 
ing it a few feet wide and allowing the action of the 
weather to pulverize the bank and the roots to de¬ 
cay, and each year make the road one or two feet 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


69 


wider until the desired width is attained. This also 
gives parts which are liable to settle more, time to 
present where additional filling is necessary to insure 
uniformity of grade and solidity of surface when 
the work is completed. 


Macadam Road. 


What is meant by a Macadam Road? 

By a Macadam or Macadamized road, is meant 
a plan of road formulated by John L. Macadam of 
England; a man of but little book knowledge, but 
more than ordinary natural road ability, who super¬ 
intended the construction of over twenty thousand 
miles of road in his native land; and whose road 
formula has reached and benefited all the civilized 
portions of the earth. 

His plan briefly stated was: to drain thoroughly; 
grade perfectly; cut a shoulder on each side to form 
a crown or elevation in the center; roll it solid and 
according as soft places would give down, fill them 
with dirt until uniformity of grade and solidity 
of surface were attained, presenting the following 
appearance: 



Then place ordinary crushed stone about five 
inches deep; roll and sprinkle until uniform and 
solid; add five inches more, which roll and sprinkle 
in like manner; add four inches of crushed lime¬ 
stone, roll and sprinkle until uniform and solid, 
which completes the job. 


70 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


What object is there in using limestone? 

Because its qualities tend to cement into one 
common mass, remain smooth, and solid and on 
account of that reason reduce the rolling friction 
and wear longer. 

Are there any objections to this plan of road? 

It is claimed that a macadam road is so dry that 
it is hard on the feet of animals; but this could be 
modified by shade trees along its sides, which pro¬ 
duce moisture and would tend to hold the particles 
of matter in place and prevent the substance from 
forming into dust and being blown away by the 
wind, and thereby cause it to last longer. 

Is the dryness of a macadam road the only ob¬ 
jection? 

The enormous cost of building is argued against 
the macadam road, especially where the material 
has to be freighted a long distance. 

Cost of Macadam Road. 

Can you give an idea of the first cost of a good 
macadam road? 

The entire cost of the National Pike, from Cum¬ 
berland to Wheeling, averaged $13,000 per mile, 
including bridges, thorough cleaning of the ground 
sixty-six feet wide and macadamizing thirty-two 
feet wide; in the center, twenty feet wide was made 
eighteen inches deep and the remaining twelve feet 
on the edges, was to be twelve inches deep. 

The upper stratum of six inches to be broken so 
as not to exceed three inches in diameter; the lower 
stratum not to exceed seven inches. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


7 1 

But was this not daring a period when labor was 
less expensive? 

When the National Pike was built labor was de- 
cidely less expensive than now, but road machinery 
was scarcely known; the earth had to be handled 
with shovels, and carts instead of scraped by horse 
power; and the stone broken by hand instead of 
crushed by steam; the building of bridges on mod¬ 
ern plans requires decidedly less labor than cutting 
stone with chisels. 

Considering everything, could a similar road be 
built for less money now? 

The increased knowledge of road building and 
invention of road machinery in the last hundred 
years, renders it possible to build a road with less 
manual labor now than it did then; notwithstand¬ 
ing the cost of such a road, and such bridges would 
be expensive yet. 

Was there any provision regarding the grade of 
this historical road? 

It was wisely provided, though not strictly ad¬ 
hered to, that the grade should not exceed five de¬ 
grees; and as we have observed a degree is equal 
to one and three-fourths per cent., the amount of 
rise of said road per hundred feet, eight and three- 
fourths per cent. 


Telford Road. 

In what respect does the Telford road differ from 
the macadam road? 

The telford road consists of stones placed side 
side by side the desired width of the road for the 


72 


ROAD LOCATING AND 



lower stratum; on this the upper stratum is placed 
and rolled the same as the Macadam road. 


Steel Rails on a Common Road. 

What advantages would be derived from laying 
steel, or iron rails, similar to those of a railroad, 
except a wider base for the wheels of vehicles to 
run on? 

This plan, as has been noticed, would diminish 
the rolling friction and enable the same power to 
transfer vastly more weight; and tend to make the 
driving much more pleasant. 

Are there any arguments against this plan of 
road? 

To get the best results the track would have to 
be kept clean, which would be difficult on account 
of horses traveling level with it; the road in be¬ 
tween the rails would be difficult to keep in repair 
on account of its constant use; the question of 
right of way would be kept constantly alive by 
persons meeting; the road on either or both sides 
would have to be kept in condition or people could 
not pass; the expense of building a single track 
would be heavy; and a double track would cost still 
more; then after a double track the question of 
speed would arise; a hay wagon would go one 
speed and an automobile another; if the party de¬ 
siring to go fast would propose to go around the 
other, a good road on one or both sides would be 
necessary; this would involve the cost of a double 






(BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


7 3 


track railroad and a good country road in addi¬ 
tion. 

Then you think it unwise to go into this experi¬ 
ment? 

The idea is not to formulate rules and arrive at 
conclusions; but a wide, smooth, uniform, solid 
road can be built at far less expense; and from the 
evidence we have now, would give more universal 
satisfaction. 

However, more testimony and maturer knowl¬ 
edge may render an adverse decision. 


What Roads Build First. 

When the people of various sections insist on a 
road, both deserving, and making about equal 
claims; and the funds are inadequate to accommo¬ 
date all, what is best to do? 

This question is about the same age of civiliza¬ 
tion, and has been debated by every generation 
of the human family since roads were known; but 
never yet fully settled. 

What are some of the prevalent ideas on this 
subject? 

To build a sample mile of good road here and 
there, in different parts of each county. 

What reasons do the advocates of this system 
give for this plan? 

The principal reason advanced is that people will 
travel over bad road a certain distance; then come 
to a mile of good road; then continue on bad road 
again and clearly see and realize the difference and 


74 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


by this demonstration cause all to become enthusi¬ 
astic for good roads. 

Can there he good reasons given against this 
theory? 

By building sample miles of good road in rural 
districts a majority of the traveling public may 
never see the improvement; and unless the entire 
road is first carefully laid off from end to end, 
when it is decided to build it all, the sample mile 
will likely be in the wrong place and the expense 
lost or worse than lost. 

How could it he worse than lost f 

When the entire road was undertaken and the 
sample mile was found to be in the wrong place, 
it would be perfectly natural to try to use it and 
spoil the location in order to save the sample mile. 

Suppose the entire route was carefully laid off 
from end to end before a lick was hitf 

In that case no work would be lost and the more 
that was built the better. 

How could a more just distribution of the funds 
he made and produce as much enthusiasm f 

To start at the center of commerce and build 
the various roads in all the different directions to 
the extent of the funds on hand would be an ad¬ 
vantage to all the traveling public, and all could 
see the improvement and readily appreciate the 
advantages, as fully as if the improvement started 
from each residence. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


75 


Water. 

Do streams of zvater along the sides of roads 
ever demand the attention of road supervisors? 

There are streams near roads which are con¬ 
stantly, though usually slowly changing, and re¬ 
quire thoughtful attention. 

What causes those streams to keep changing? 

The most prevalent causes are the cutting away 
the timber, which causes the roots to decay, and 
the general tendency of the stream bed to fill up, 
which is sometimes hastened by pollution. 

How will it do to require trees to he planted 
along the edges of streams? 

This, of course, would prove advantageous in 
the course of time; but serious damages might be 
sustained before the roots would attain sufficient 
size to produce the desired results; and in the 
course of time a sluggish stream would fill up to 
an extent to cause high water to overflow. 

How would it do to build retaining walls at 
points of danger? 

Retaining walls are very expensive; and in many 
respects fail to answer the purpose. When a wall 
is built the water along its edge increases its mo¬ 
mentum in proportion as the smoothness of the wall 
diminishes the sliding friction; this throws the cur¬ 
rent to the wall and increases the danger to the 
foundation. 

Can you suggest any other plan? 

To clean the bed of the stream out would give 
more room for the water, and cause it to run away 


76 ROAD LOCATING AND 

faster; and in these two ways diminish the proba¬ 
bility of danger. 

But would there not still he danger of the sides 
washing, especially where the stream curves? 

The cheapest and best plan to prevent this is 
to place brush, limbs and leaves on the outside 
or danger part of the curve; from the inside of 
the curve take a sufficient amount of material to 
hold the brush in place; the first time the water 
rises the brush will catch driftage and the water 
will cut on the side from where the material was 
taken; then when the water recedes, place another 
coat of brush and cover it with material from 
the same side as before; and so continue until 
the stream is changed the desired amount. 

Why not go at it and cut and change the course 
of the stream all at one time? 

Because by allowing the water to assist in the 
work the cost is diminished about seventy-five per 
cent, of the amount, and the portion of bank formed 
is woven together by the brush so that its per¬ 
manence is far greater. 

But will not these brush soon decay? 

The portions excluded from the action of the 
air will last longer than is generally supposed, 
sufficient at least for grass and other vegetation 
to grow on the ground to diminish the danger of 
washing. In addition to this, the curve of the 
stream is lessened; the fall proportionately increased 
and the speed of the current accelerated, and thrown 
away from the point of danger. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


77 



1. Road. 

2. Stream. 

3. Where stream should be. 


Automatic Flood Gate. 

In cases where dams are necessary for any pur¬ 
pose, will not the bed of the stream fill up? 

Automatic flood gates can be made which will 
open by the action of the water, when it reaches a 
given height; and close of its own accord when 
the water recedes. 

How make a gate of this kind? 




7« 


ROAD LOCATING AND 



A a dam; b b b flood gate with shoulders below 
the lower part to prevent it from opening in that 
direction; c c c c hinges, above which there must 
be about three times as much surface; and below 
the hinges the gate must weigh more than the por¬ 
tion above the hinges. The gate will remain per¬ 
pendicular, while the water is up to or somewhat 
above the dam; and when the water gets up to the 
top of the upper portion of the gate, the gate will 
turn flat by the force of water because of the large 
per cent, of the surface being above the hinges; 
and when the water recedes the gate will close 
again on account of greater weight being below 
the hinges; reckoning, of course, no driftage or 
any other obstruction. 

Why is it necessary to make the surface of the 
gate so very much larger above than below the 
hinges? 

The pressure of the water at the bottom of the 
stream being so much greater than at the top; 
experiment proves that to insure success, the gate 
should have about three times as much surface 
above as it has below the hinges. 

Should the portion of the gate below the hinges 
be much heavier than the top part? 

No, only a sufficient amount to cause it to close 
when the water ceases to run over the gate. 





























BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


! 


79 


What objection could there be to making the 
loiver portion of the gate decidedly heavier than 
the upper part? 

In proportion as the gate is heavier below than 
above the hinges, it will fail to entirely open or 
absolutely lie flat, and admit a full outlet of water 
during a flood. 

Is there probability of the gate opening more 
than level? 

No, the water under the large part of the top 
surface will bear it up; but on account of driftage 
and through abundance of caution, brackets or 
other supports should be placed below the dam 
to prevent the gate from turning more than level. 

Hoad Material. 

What led to the use of coal oil on roads? 

In California at some seasons the dust is very 
disagreeable, and to prevent this inconvenience coal 
oil was sprinkled on the road; which led to the 
discovery that the oil caused the particles of sand 
to adhere and thereby improve the road. 

Will the !Eastern coal oil improve a road? 

It will not, on account of its paraffin quality or 
lack of affinity for other substances; but the Cali¬ 
fornia oil has an asphaltum base which unites the 
particles, constituting the road surface into a tough 
stratum similar to asphalt pavement. 

Is coal oil much used on roads? 

In portions of the country where the asphaltum 
oil can be had at a reasonable freight the use of 
oil has passed the experimental stage. 


So 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


But is not the use of oil on roads expensive? 

The expense is modified by purchasing in large 
quantities; using the oil in a crude condition, in¬ 
stead of refined; getting minimum freight rates; 
and applying it to the roads by machinery. 

What material should generally he used on roads? 

“ Necessity which knows no law ” usually re¬ 
quires that not the very best but the best attainable 
be used; limestone, shale, oyster shells, gravel and 
various other materials are used; depending more 
frequently on which is most convenient. 

Of the various materials, when attainable lime¬ 
stone wears longer than any other known material. 

What ordinarily causes low places in roads where 
water accumulates and forms mud holes? 

The use of material of different solidities; that 
is, if all the substance was of a uniform solidity, 
the road bed would either all stay up or go down 
the same amount. 


Shade Trees. 

Should shade trees he planted along roads? 

Shades make the driving more pleasant in sum¬ 
mer; cause the snow to drift to some extent in 
winter; produce dampness throughout the season; 
and furnish a crop of leaves in autumn, which 
increases the rolling friction and if there are ditches 
helps to fill them up. 

On the other hand a dry, mountainous road is 
not materially injured by a reasonable amount of 
shade; and on a macadam road, where the tendency 
is to become too dry, shade trees are a benefit. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


81 


Maintenance. 

How dispose of zoom out material which accu¬ 
mulates in ditchesf 

That would depend on the circumstance of the 
case. 

The substance accumulating in ditches, when 
partly formed of soil and the droppings of animals 
is valuable as a fertilizer; and farmers in some 
instances could afford to cart it away free of charge, 
or at least permit it to be hauled on their land at 
public expense; but it will never in any case justify 
to throw spongy, worn out material and droppings 
of animals back on the road, or permit unhealthy 
substance to remain in ditches, and cause water to 
soak up into the road. 

What is the most destructive thing to our roads? 

The ruts formed by narrow tired vehicles, in 
which the water starts to flow; and will soon re¬ 
quire heavy expenditure to place the road in its 
original repair. 

How avoid this calamityf 

By wide tired vehicles this evil could be vastly 
diminished; and, in addition, the experiment might 
be tried of making the doubletrees enough longer 
to just cause the horses to travel in the ruts and 
cut them to some extent, or work three horses 
abreast instead of two to more effectually enable 
the wide tire to close the ruts entirely. 

Would it not be hard on horses to place them out 
in the ruts of vehicles? 

For one or part of the teams to be forced to 
walk in the ruts would be a hardship; but if all 


82 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


would travel in the ruts and cut them, followed by 
broad tired vehicles, it would be an advantage; this 
plan of hitching is only a suggestion and may not 
be wise, but the wide tires unquestionably are an 
advantage. 

Do wide tired vehicles run harder or easier? 

This is also a debatable proposition. Some claim 
they do, others they do not. 

A tire six inches wide will strike double the 
amount of road, more than a three-inch tire will; 
but on an average will only press obstructions half 
as hard in proportion. It therefore appears rea¬ 
sonable that the power required would be about the 
same, while the damages to roads and farms, caused 
by wide tires would be manifestly less. 

Bonds. 

Would there he any objections to issuing bonds 
and building all the roads at once? 

If all the money was wisely and judiciously spent 
the advantages being so immediate and incalculably 
great that the enterprise would justify what would 
be denominated stringent action in almost any case; 
but in some of the rural districts the depreciation 
of the roads by the action of the weather, added to 
the interest on the bonds would amount to more 
than the value of the crops; and the enthusiasm of 
incompetent road builders might get in advance of 
their knowledge, and cause an intended blessing to 
be perverted to the purposes of an extensive evil. 

How evade the danger of bonds and at the same 
time do justice to people in rural districts 5 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


83 

Give them a perfectly located, less expensive road 
to be improved as their commerce requires it, and 
the supply of funds by reasonable taxes will admit. 

Then you are not an advocate of oppressive 
taxes? 

The awakening of thought, friendly discussion 
of general interests, diffusion of useful knowledge 
and guarding against practical waste of public funds 
have been fraught with better results in very many 
instances than oppressive taxes. 

Enthusiasm. 

Is there any danger of the good road enthusiasm ? 

Enthusiasm if wisely directed should produce 
good results; but to tax our people, and allow men 
who are uninformed on the road theory to prac¬ 
tically waste the funds has always been fraught with 
evil, which will increase in proportion as enthusiasm 
goes in advance of knowledge. 

Suppose the funds were handled by competent 
menf 

If the funds were invested and not practically 
wasted the money would only change hands; the 
amount remain the same; the value of all real es¬ 
tate would be enhanced, and the general comfort 
of all the people increased, and none materially in¬ 
jured.* 

* Places along public roads should be provided for ani¬ 
mals and people to obtain water. In densely populated sec¬ 
tions, toilet places should be provided for the accommodation 
of traveling persons; and the experiment might be tried of 
sprinkling California coal oil on macadam roads, to prevent 
the material from blowing away in the form of dust. 


84 ROAD LOCATING AND 

Recapitulation. 

What are some of the most prominent ideas in 
this hook? 

That design should precede execution; that road 
men should demonstrate their proficiency, before 
they handle the people’s funds; that the law should 
be simplified on the one hand, and the people en¬ 
lightened on the other; that spending money on 
defective grades is worse than lost; that it is just 
and economical to work convict labor on our roads; 
and that we can likely get our rights of way on an 
average free of cost. 

Should all roads intended as permanent he laid 
off with the same degree of accuracy f 

The amount a road will be used in time to come, 
is conjecture; a lack of skill is in every direction, 
and no instance where precision has been regretted; 
the cost of accurate design is insignificant; — the 
principal part, is building and repairs, which can 
be made by installments, in accordance with the 
law of supply and demand, which eliminates the 
possibility of mistakes from the proposition. 

On what further evidence do you base this opin~ 
io n? 

The cost of an accurately located, well built dirt 
road is small; with wide tired vehicles the main¬ 
tenance is reduced to the minimum; at any time it 
may be desired to turn it into a macadam road, at 
about the same cost of a standard gauge railroad, 
which would not justify on a defective location, and 
to change the plan would require moving so much 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 85 

adjacent property that the enterprise would be 
permanently defeated. 

How eradicate the evil? 

Let nations, states, counties, — in fact all people 
condemn spending one cent on any part of any 
permanent road, until the best possible location is 
procured from end to end, whether it is a hundred 
yards or clear across a continent, and place an 
emergency brake on engineers and overseers by re¬ 
quiring them to give bond for their accuracy and 
report to a Board who have demonstrated their 
proficiency. 

Will accurate design, universal wisdom and con¬ 
vict labor produce satisfactory results in a reason¬ 
able time without oppressing the people f 

Accurate design will require us to perform the 
work but once — not an indefinite number of times; 
wisdom instead of ignorance will safely double the 
results heretofore obtained from the same rate of 
taxes; the labor of the convicts will add to said 
amounts, and the ordinary developments of the 
country will soon double the revenue without in¬ 
creasing the rate; — multiply the knowledge and 
basis each bv two makes fourfold, and the convict 
labor will safely make the total permanent results 
five times what we are now obtaining, which will 
enable us to get over our roads with satisfaction 
in a few years. 

To resurface will cost far less than to build first, 
and the taxable basis, knowledge and convict labor 
will increase faster than the increased commerce 
will wear the roads, which will enable us to rapidly 


86 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


improve our highways and gradually diminish our 
rate of taxes without ever considering the bond 
subject. 


The Horse. 

If this essay is a digression, pardon will be 
granted, in consideration of the intimate relation¬ 
ship between power and transportation. 

The kind, quality and quantity of food, bed, ven¬ 
tilation, and especially the kindness extended to a 
horse, modifies his disposition, invigorates his health 
and lengthens his life. 

A fat horse will eat less than a poor one, and re¬ 
flect more credit on his owner. 

Adaptation, study, experience and executive abil¬ 
ity are requisites of a good driver. 

Without veracity, obedience cannot be expected 
from a horse or a child. 

Only such persons as are disposed to treat ani¬ 
mals as they would be treated under a reverse of 
circumstances should be allowed in a barn or stable. 

The nearer a horse is hitched to a load the easier 
he can pull it. 

Straight from the hitch on the hame to where 
the hind wheel of a buggy rests on the ground, will 
generally give the line of gravity and determine the 
height the singletree should be located; as a rule 
horses are hitched too high to pull to an advantage. 

To start or stop a horse suddenly is cruel and 
ignorant. Get on the vehicle, speak kindly to the 
team, let them start slowly, and increase the speed 
gradually until the desired gait is attained and slow 
up in like manner before stopping. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 87 

A horse should be accustomed to start and stop 
by word, to make property and life more secure. 

A rein on a buggy horse is unnecessary; the 
headstall and lines will answer; then if the animal 
stumbles, he can regain himself; if he comes to 
water he can drink; the natural motion of the head 
when he steps will reflect beauty; the ease expe¬ 
rienced cultivates a kind disposition; and his power 
of endurance is greater in proportion as his normal 
condition is maintained. 

To jerk a horse to make him go, or as chastise¬ 
ment, is awkward, ignorant, and cruel; to tie his 
head up causes a loss of saliva intended to assist 
in digestion; exposes the eyes to the direct rays 
of the sun; the concussion of the jerk tears the 
mouth, produces spinal rheumatism, paralyses the 
tongue and gives the dust free access into the lungs. 







APPENDIX 


The following Road Bill, drawn by C. E. Brandt, 
for Allegany County, Maryland, was unanimously ap¬ 
proved by The Associated Merchants of Cumberland, 
Maryland, on the 9th day of January, 1906. 

The BUI was introduced in the Senate of Maryland 
by the Hon. 'John B. Shannon (by request), on the 
16th day of March, 1906, and failed to become a law 
on account of other business which was energetically 
pressed by personal advocates. 

PREAMBLE 

AN ACT to reduce our taxes, by wisely investing 
our funds; provide for the accurate location of our 
public highways; place our roads in the hands of 
men adapted to the work; obtain road locations for 
a nominal amount; and build and repair our highways 
so far as practicable with convict labor. 

Sec. 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of 
Maryland, that the Board of County Commissioners 
of Allegany County, Maryland, shall annually on the 
1st day of January, or as soon thereafter as may be 
possible, assemble at their usual place of meeting for 
the purpose of appointing a board of examiners, con¬ 
sisting of not less than five of the most practicable 
men in the County, on road engineering and road 
building, not less than two of whom shall be practical 
engineers, who, after having taken the following oath 
before the President of the Board of County Com¬ 
missioners, shall constitute the Road Board examiners 

89 


90 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


for Allegany County, Maryland, until the first day of 
the next January, or until their successors shall be duly 
qualified. 

I,-, do solemly swear that I am fully in accord 

with the principles I am now espousing; and that I 
will employ all my powers in the dismissal from my 
mind, any feeling which might cause me to deviate 
from the plain bounded principles of using my best 
judgment in the impartial performance of this, my 
most vital public duty. 

Sec. 2. Immediately after being qualified the Ex¬ 
amining Board shall organize, receive $3 each per 
day, for time actually employed; give five days’ no¬ 
tice of the time and place where candidates for road 
duty will be examined; and at the time and place so 
appointed shall examine all applicants, and the four 
standing the best examination shall be declared the 
Road Board, until the first of the next January, or 
until their successors have been qualified; and the 
remainder of applicants shall receive certificates of 
their ability; and be appointed by the Road Board 
as foremen and road hands according to their certifi¬ 
cate, in preference to any others who may make ap¬ 
plication without examination. 

Sec. 3. The Road Board shall immediately after 
they shall have passed a superior examination over 
all other competitors in the County, take the oath in 
section one of this act and proceed to organize; and 
each give bond for $2,000 and receive $3 each per day 
for time actually and necessarily employed; and are 
hereby made a body corporate under the name and 
title of The Road Board for Allegany County, with 
power to sue and be sued. 

Sec. 4. The County Commissioners shall, in their 
annual levy in the year 1908 and annually thereafter, 
levy upon the assessable property of Allegany County 
not less than forty thousand dollars for the use of 



BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


9 i 


the Road Board of Allegany County, which shall be 
collected as other taxes are collected; and to the ex¬ 
tent of such levy the County Treasurer of Allegany 
County shall honor the drafts of the Road Board. 

Sec. 5- The Road Board shall have the power when 
additional foremen or hands may be necessary to re¬ 
quire the Examining Board to appoint a time and 
place, give due notice, and sit for the examination of 
such additional hands and workmen as may be neces¬ 
sary, and who shall have preference of places, prices 
and employment according to the number of certificate 
indicating their knowledge of road work. 

Sec. 6. The Road Board shall have full power and 
absolute jurisdiction over all the roads, bridges and 
road funds spent in Allegany County, outside of in¬ 
corporated towns and cities; and also the power to 
relocate old roads, or parts of roads, and build new 
ones to the extent of such amount as shall come into 
their hands; but shall have no legal right to increase 
the amount of taxes or to issue bonds. 

Sec. 7. Before proceeding to work any road, the 
Road Board shall employ a good engineer, using 
their judgment under their oath as to the price to 
pay; who shall give double the amount of bond neces¬ 
sary to pay all expenses of engineering such road 
from its point of origin to its terminus, with the same 
degree of accuracy that would be required for a 
standard gauge railroad, allowing the engineer suffi¬ 
cient time and opportunity to make a correct report 
which shall be adopted provided the deviation does 
not exceed 18 inches per mile. 

Sec. 8. If it is necessary to deviate from uniform¬ 
ity of rise by running a sag line as is frequently wise 
to do when ascending a stream, by constantly in¬ 
creasing the grade according to the increase of the 
rise of the stream, and largely disregarding all prac¬ 
tical obstructions, courses of old roads, or individual 


92 ROAD LOCATING AND 

objections; keeping- constantly in view the idea of our 
county roads being equal to, if not superior in grade 
and accuracy to our railroad system; then and in that 
case the sag line and not the uniform line shall con¬ 
stitute the test. 

Sec. 9. No engineering corps shall be liable for 
damages, while passing over a location or relocation 
of a road under direction of the Road Board, except 
that if the destruction of growing crops or other posi¬ 
tive damages shall be claimed, the Road Board shall 
have the power to pay the owner the amount they 
would consider reasonable to demand under a reverse 
of circumstances. 

Sec. 10. The Road Board shall have the power, 
when in their judgment the interest of the traveling 
public requires it, to condemn any width of land up 
to sixty feet wide for any road or part of a road in 
Allegany County. 

Sec. 11. When a person owns a small property 
along a road, which would be damaged more than 
benefited by a correct location of the road; the Road 
Board may agree with such person as to damages, 
or purchase a small amount of land for him, her or 
them, at the expense of the County, in place of the 
amount taken, to be governed by what the Board 
would consider just and reasonable; but their action 
whether too severe, or too liberal may be considered 
by the Grand Jury; but that body shall not be al¬ 
lowed in any way to injure the location of the road. 

Sec. 12. When it is necessary, either in locating a 
new road or perfecting one of our old roads, to ob¬ 
tain a right of way against the owner’s will, the Road 
Board shall have power to require the sheriff to 
summon twelve disinterested freeholders, who after 
taking the oath prescribed in section one of this chap¬ 
ter, shall go upon the ground and assess the damages 
of a right of way, the width determined under Section 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


93 

io of this chapter, and also place a valuation on the 
entire property. 

Sec. 13. After the Road Board shall have heard the 
report of the jury of condemnation provided in Sec¬ 
tion 12 of this chapter, they shall determine whether 
to pay the damages for right of way or accept the 
entire tract at the value assessed by the jury of con¬ 
demnation, or abandon the enterprise; but shall have 
no power to accept any compromise to the detriment 
of the road location; and in case the Road Board ac¬ 
cepts the location, condemned by the jury, they shall 
pay. the damages, make a map of the route, and have 
the same recorded; open and build the road as cir¬ 
cumstances will admit; and in case they accept the 
entire tract, they shall pay for the same, build the 
road as soon as possible, and sell the remaining por¬ 
tions not needed for a road, if possible at an advance 
sufficient to pay other just damages, with the view of 
obtaining the entire location by increasing the value 
of property along the line; and no appeal shall be 
had which will injure the road location, or prevent the 
county from the advantages of a free right of way. 

Sec. 14. Every person employed as supervisor of 
a road shall first give bond in the sum of $500 for 
the accuracy of his work and continuously have with 
him when at work on a county road any instrument, 
however simple or non-expensive, by which he can 
run a mile of road within a deviation of not over 
eighteen inches. 

Sec. 15. Any supervisor of a road shall, before 
starting a man, or number of men to work on a public 
road shall first fully explain to him or them how the 
work is intended to appear when completed; and every 
time he changes a man, he shall give his reasons in 
order that all may work intelligently, and with one 
object in view; and especially the diffusion of road 
knowledge. 


94 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


Sec. i6. The Road Board shall have the power to 
photograph, and in any humane way describe all 
county and state criminals under their charge, who 
are fit for road duty; and after one or more of the 
roads leading out from Cumberland have been lo¬ 
cated according to the best engineering ability, take 
all or such number of criminals as may be desired 
from our county jail or elsewhere, who are capable 
of performing road work; and let them work on said 
road; and according as any of said criminals are 
obedient and disposed to work, their time shall be 
shortened; and kindness shall be extended, tending 
to make his stay on the road agreeable, and his citizen¬ 
ship made more profitable hereafter; and the fact that 
any one shall have performed work on the road as a 
criminal shall not bar him from employment there¬ 
after, provided he qualify himself and prove his com¬ 
petence by his certificate of examination. 

Sec. 17. Such criminals as are disposed to run away 
and cause expense and trouble shall have their term 
extended in proportion thereto; and if he or they are 
not disposed to do a reasonable amount of work; 
such means shall be employed as will cause them to 
work. 

Sec. 18. It shall be lawful for the counties to ex¬ 
change prisoners, when necessary to have a convenient 
number for the various superintendents. 

Sec. 19. All acts or parts of acts, inconsistent with 
this act are hereby repealed. 

Sec. 20. No person, corporation, company or firm 
shall buy and use on the county roads of Allegany 

County any vehicle after-, 1907 unless the tread 

of such vehicle is one-fourth inch wide for each and 
every hundred pounds capacity up to fifteen inches. 

The following is the report of the Associated Mer¬ 
chants of Cumberland, Md. 



BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


95 


To the Associated Merchants of Cumberland, Md., 
Gentlemen: — 

Your committee unanimously endorse the afore¬ 
going Bill; but in consideration that Cumberland’s 
wagon commerce is derived from three States, a differ¬ 
ent law for the same center of trade will tend to dis¬ 
turb the harmony; therefore your committee recom¬ 
mends the immediate passage of all the aforegoing 
act except Section 20; and that the General Assembly 
of Maryland confer with the authorities of West Vir¬ 
ginia and Pennsylvania, requesting them to join with 
us in the enactment and enforcement of Section 20 
of this Chapter; which report was unanimously ac¬ 
cepted by the Associated Merchants of Cumberland, 
Md., on the 9th day of January, 1906. 

Joseph Hirsh, Chairman of Com. 

Can any objections be filed to this Bill? 

Objections were filed to the elaborate oath; that it 
would legislate out of office, those already elected by 
the people; and that the character of examination 
was not clearly defined. 

What system was advocated instead of this? 

The appointment of an engineer to take charge of 
the roads. 

What objections are there against this easy simple 
plan? 

This would be all right if the engineer was com¬ 
petent. 

But why not obtain a regular graduate who has 
stood a creditable examination? 

The objection is that some persons can stand a book 
examination on a subject and at the same time be 
destitute of originality or natural ability for the situa¬ 
tion. 


96 


ROAD LOCATING 


Might this not he true of a Board who would he 
examined? 

This being true of any one whether elected or ap¬ 
pointed is the reason why knowledge should be dif¬ 
fused to enable the people to more wisely determine 
this important question. 


ARGUMENTS FOR THE BILL 


The following is an argument made in support of 
the aforegoing Bill, when it was introduced before the 
Legislature. 

In presenting this argument in support of my Road 
Bill, I desire a thorough investigation, and mature 
consideration of the subject by all thoughtful people, 
with the hope that others may criticize the language, 
and better clothe the theory which is unquestionably 
destined to revolutionize the road system of the United 
States. 

Since the landing of Europeans on the American 
continent, nearly all the funds intended to be applied 
to our public roads have been practically wasted; in 
fact the enterprise has never had the combined atten¬ 
tion, and best ability of any generation. 

We have Indian trails, afterward improved to pack 
roads, and eventually made possible for vehicles; also 
such locations as are obtained by appointing inex¬ 
perienced viewers, to simply walk over the ground 
and report a location to incompetent judges, as to 
where it will cost the least to build a road. 

But is there a mile of public road in the United 
States, where the engineer was required to produce 
a location within a reasonable limit of accuracy or 
forfeit his bond? 

Such roads answered to pack in the game, and serve 
our venerable forefathers while they planted a na¬ 
tion; after that, people surveyed, acquired titles, and 
improved with reference to such inferior road loca¬ 
tions, while public opinion remained practically dor- 

97. 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


98 

feSfc T. 

mant on the subject; and now we face the condition 
with an enormous commerce to handle; and while 
the people are wisely demanding easier transportation 
they are devoting their thoughts and energies to all 
other phases of the subject except the location of the 
road, and the capability possessed by the men who 
are to handle the funds, and execute the designs; 
while I am contending that our public highways should 
be first located from end to end with all the precision 
their importance demands, by a person made respon¬ 
sible for his accuracy, and then determine the capabil¬ 
ity of the man who is to execute the design before one 
cent of public funds is placed at his disposal. 

If a celestial being would propose to build a fine 
road free of cost for us, on an admittedly inferior lo¬ 
cation, the people could not afford to accept the 
offer, because it would prove an incumberer of the 
ground, forever prevent the maximum increase of 
values, dwarf commerce, hinder the full benefits of 
the press, hamper refinement, mar civilization and 
continuously paralyze the march of Christianity and 
civilization in that section. 

Within the last half century every important factor 
of civilization has undergone a decided change,— 
mostly for good, except our public roads, on which 
fabulous amounts have been practically wasted for 
want of wisdom on the subject. 

Let us consider that the old National Pike from 
Cumberland to Wheeling cost an average of thirteen 
thousand dollars per mile, when men could be hired 
at fifty cents per day; and if we cheapen the enter¬ 
prise by modern machinery to more than counterbal¬ 
ance the difference in the price of the labor, such 
roads as the old Pike will still cost sufficient to 
satisfy all the taxpayers by the time they build them 
once, without attempting to change and rebuild them 
and adjacent property an indefinite number of times. 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 99 

Nor is an example wanting for those who are in¬ 
credulous. 

A railroad will start from a commercial center, and 
ascend the cavity caused by a stream — gradually in¬ 
creasing the grade until the most remote agricultural 
fields are reached, or the richest ores penetrated, un¬ 
til a distance of railroad has been made in the United 
States, within the last eighty years, sufficient to reach 
twelve times around the earth; and in face of their 
uniformity of grade, and less expensive power, the 
wagon road has gone about parallel with the rail¬ 
roads, regardless of grade, with the most expensive 
power; — burdened the people for their support; and 
their builders would have resented with force an in¬ 
timation that their work was an injury and disgrace 
to the country. 

The railroad companies employed the best engineer¬ 
ing talent in the country during the two past genera¬ 
tions ; gave them almost unbounded discretionary 
power; when they were sure they were right they 
went ahead, built permanently and of course suc¬ 
ceeded. 

They have furnished us an example in engineering 
fraught with wisdom by which we may vastly benefit. 

Persons expecting employment on a railroad un¬ 
dergo an examination with willingness. 

The same requirement is made by the professions 
— law, medicine and theology, whose requisites are 
sufficiently stringent, that the uninformed need not 
apply,— rendering failure dependent alone on in¬ 
adaptability to the calling; and they have benefited 
with interest in proportion to the knowledge de¬ 
manded. 

Our schools only existed in name before our teach¬ 
ers were required to undergo an examination; after 
which came uniformity, knowledge, system and pub¬ 
lic confidence, which silenced the enemies of this foun- 


100 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


tain of wisdom, sustained from the highest sentiment 
of civilized mankind; and is destined to overflow the 
earth with knowledge, and transform this globe into 
one united land of liberty. 

Natural knowledge, cultivated by theory and ma¬ 
tured by experience should enable mankind to readily 
observe that in proportion as horse power is more 
expensive than steam, our wagon roads should be 
built with greater uniformity and perfection than 
railroads. 

All our mountainous land must practically remain 
worthless unless drastic means can be devised to 
extend to them the means of easy transportation, a 
rural delivery of mail, and facilitate attending schools 
and places of devotion; which will stimulate the popu¬ 
lation to engage in the cultivation of the ground ac¬ 
cording to its adaptation, and fill the markets with 
the various demands of society, thereby bringing into 
use and value large portions of country, which In¬ 
finite Wisdom created for a wise and useful purpose; 
but without such a road system a considerable portion 
of our country can only support a sparsely settled im¬ 
provident population, seeking low rent, and take pleas¬ 
ure in remaining ignorant, vicious and without tax¬ 
able basis sufficient to prosecute their own criminals. 

Commerce and civilization require, while we fol¬ 
low the general direction of our grandfathers, im¬ 
proving our knowledge, freedom and refinement, that 
we keep constantly in view, that as transportation is 
made perfect, the burden of life alleviates, affording 
more time for personal pleasure and severing the fet¬ 
ters of vice and ignorance from the remainder of 
mankind. 

The rational public opinion now awakening in the 
United States on the easy transportation theory, is of 
sufficient force, if guided by wisdom, to call into 
requisition competent talent that would have hereto- 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


IOI 


fore considered the vocation too insignificant for their 
consideration. 

Our first road examinations, like those of our 
schools, may be exceedingly fallible, but get above 
political, personal and sectarian feelings,— on the 
plane of wisdom,— add to this honor, and a justifiable 
amount of cold cash, and ignorance will soon with¬ 
draw from the conflict. 

Those who fail to comprehend my theory, say that 
I am a hundred years in advance of the age. The 
more sagacious look in every direction at the various 
mistakes, and admit that with the birth of the rail¬ 
road system in 1827, when easy transportation began 
to build commerce, and readily admit that if system 
and accuracy had then been applied to the formation 
of our towns, streets, alleys, and the lay off and con¬ 
struction of our public roads, the same material and 
labor, especially in the older states, would have 
doubled the results. 

Another class is horror stricken for fear their 
friends will be legislated out of office and can never 
be reinstated on account of their inability to stand 
an examination; and a chronic invincible disbelief 
in progress, causes another class, who are unaware 
that eminent domain ever accompanies sovereignty, to 
marvel at taking an entire tract of land for road pur¬ 
poses, however much the good of society may de¬ 
mand it. 

If the people are bound by any rule of justice to 
keep incompetent officers in power for the sole pur¬ 
pose of drawing salaries, it will save funds to pay 
and excuse them, and thereby save what they would 
practically waste. 

Reckoning our future progress by our past achieve¬ 
ments, we draw on the imagination for a picture of 
what human industry, national peace and divine bless- 


102 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


ings will yield in another century, rendering our wis¬ 
dom or ignorance of design most fully apparent. 

The inferiority of our wagon roads prevents the 
moving of crops in muddy seasons, which causes con- 
jestion of trade, requiring the railroad companies to 
keep on hand about one-third more cars than would 
otherwise be necessary, resulting in their heaviest loss, 
thereby causing the corporations to collect additional 
freight without inuring to either the benefit of the 
companies or the people, which fully demonstrates 
that the two road systems should correspond in per¬ 
fection. 

The good road sentiment in the United States em¬ 
braces every class, race, section, interest and people 
which forms a power invincible, if properly united, 
and wisely directed against any opposing force. 

The examination of all road officers will require 
interested persons to increase their knowledge on the 
subject, and although the first applicants may not 
exhibit a vast degree of wisdom, yet year by year 
intelligence will gradually take the place of ignorance, 
the same as has been the case with all other trades, 
professions and places of honor, wisdom and trust. 

If competent men would accurately locate, and 
permanently build a mile of road out from a city, ac¬ 
cording to the latest improved methods, without first 
securing a complete location the entire length of the 
route, their mistake would be disastrous and unpar¬ 
donable, because, enterprise would go in advance of 
the good road; and the next year when they desired 
to locate and build another mile, in a majority of 
cases to obtain a correct location alone would cost 
more to move adjacent property than it should have 
cost to build the road; nor is this all: no engineer who 
has a reputation would consider laying off a mile of 
road, until he had first run a preliminary line the 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


103 


entire length, and become familiar with the difficul¬ 
ties to be surmounted, and in many instances it is im¬ 
portant to run several lines to determine the very best 
route, all things considered, and where to make a 
permanent location, map and record, which will for¬ 
ever guarantee, that when the road is built, that it 
will never be necessary to move the same; and that 
the accuracy and wisdom of the design will retain the 
confidence, admiration, and respect of all people, 
through this and all future generations. 

To build an expensive macadam road in a sparsely 
populated section, the interest on the investment, and 
the natural depreciation of the road would amount 
to more than the annual value of the crops. 

However wisdom demands that we locate our roads 
now with the utmost skill, while fewer obstructions 
are in the way than will ever be again; and open our 
rural roads out of such material as nature furnishes 
on the ground, especially side cut roads, and after 
roots have decayed and the frost has pulverized the 
bank a year, widen one or two feet, and so continue 
annually until the desired width is attained; and as 
time, means, and circumstances will admit, and the 
population and commerce of that part of the country 
requires, continue to improve, keeping constantly be¬ 
fore the people, that a road can advantageously be 
made by installments, without heavy taxes, or any 
bonds, but cannot be accurately, and wisely laid off, 
except from end to end before a lick of work is hit. 

The various kinds of ground, and numerous qual¬ 
ities of obstructions in the way of an engineer are 
multifarious; and the amount of travel to be on a 
road in time to come, on account of where commerce 
will center and cause towns and cities to be built, or 
where the land will only increase in value in propor¬ 
tion to its agricultural value is difficult to determine, 
demanding natural and acquired ability under all cir- 


104 


ROAD LOCATING AND 


cumstances, to insure an accurate location and the 
correct opening of the road, but rendering the imme¬ 
diate building of an expensive highway, where the 
future is clouded, requiring unusual taxes or bonds 
of doubtful propriety. 

There are instances, especially where aged persons 
own their home and only treasure, along where a 
road properly located, and built, would materially in¬ 
jure;— presenting a problem to which there are but 
two solutions,— pay every farthing of damages or 
ruin the road; — all Anglo-Americans should shout 
the former decision. 

There are other instances where persons own a 
considerable amount of land, where a good road would 
invite commerce in unanswerable tones, or open their 
treasure to a remunerative market; and vastly in¬ 
crease the remainder of their land infinitely beyond 
the value of the original tract, before the right of way 
was taken; therefore they could not consistently de¬ 
mand damages, or in the event that the allurements 
of easy transportation fails to attract commerce, 
wealth and civilization; — their property was origi¬ 
nally so worthless, that the taking of it all would be a 
blessing in disguise. 

An important saving of labor could be effected by 
working our vagrants, tramps and criminals on our 
public roads, to improve their health, diminish the 
prevalence of crime, diffuse road knowledge, and pre¬ 
vent the goods made in prisons from coming in com¬ 
petition with honest labor, thereby relieving the labor¬ 
ing people, our only producers of wealth, from the 
stigma of convict goods; while on the other hand the 
working of convict labor on our public highways 
would not deprive one honest man on the entire earth 
from one moment of employment; — because honest 
labor could work out the amount of funds appro¬ 
priated, and allow the convicts to build additional road 


BUILDING SIMPLIFIED 


105 

for the general comfort of all, in addition to relieving 
mankind of the goods made in our prisons. 

The maintenance of our roads demands thorough 
drainage, and the exclusion of injurious vehicles; as 
nothing is more disastrous to a road than a heavy 
wagon with a narrow tire, making at first a small 
depression in which the water starts to flow, and wash 
away, and soften the material for the next wagon to 
cut deeper, and so continue until very heavy repairs 
are required to put the road in its original condition; 
the only remedy is to thoroughly drain, and make the 
tires wide in proportion to the capacity of the vehicle. 

Then a small book should be prepared showing how 
any ingenious person, possessing natural road adapta¬ 
tion, who has been through the elementary principles 
of arithmetic, can make his own instrument, prove 
the theory by mathematics, lay off, and build a road 
within a deviation of less than eighteen inches per 
mile, and let all States provide that this valuable 
knowledge be taught in every school to our generation 
in knee pants, who will soon shoulder the responsi¬ 
bilities of this aggressive, self-governing Anglo- 
American nation. Inform our millions of boys that 
duty and competition is before them; that knowledge 
will insure victory; and the next generation will fur¬ 
nish millions of competent road men. 

Distribute this knowledge universally, and capitalists 
will buy land, out from our towns and cities, and build 
roads, on accurate locations, at their own expense 
to enhance their property in value; — farmers will 
unite for the same purpose; — then let it be taught 
the children from parental lips that easy transportation 
is home missionary work; — that in civilized countries 
the mother is respected above all,— but, amongst 
heathens she is a beast of burden. 

Let Christians unitedly remember this unquestion¬ 
able cause in their public and private devotions, and 


io6 


ROAD LOCATING 


feel positive that if the American people can be 
united, with a full assurance that the work only has 
to be done once, and that we have the approval of a 
Divine Providence — a signal — easy and glorious vic¬ 
tory will crown our efforts. 


C. E. Brandt. 











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